tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-67559503069204850212024-03-07T01:43:03.187-05:00Polyglot VegetarianGrazing through the world of wordsMMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.comBlogger43125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-12026998428214384062024-02-09T20:11:00.009-05:002024-02-11T13:58:10.808-05:00Notus un Protus<p>An earlier post here catalogued some nineteenth century <a href="/2008/03/branded-meat-substitutes.html">brand-name meat substitutes</a>. A number of these were produced by John Harvey Kellogg, of <a href="/2007/11/shredded-wheat.html">breakfast food</a> fame. The earliest and best-selling were nuttose (1896) and protose (1899). By the first decades of the twentieth century, cans of these were being shipped from Battle Creek across the continent. So that, in 1912, the company petitioned the Interstate Commerce Commission to have their meat substitute receive the same favorable (20% lower than third class) rate that canned meat did. The petition, <i>Kellogg Food Company v. Grand Trunk Railway Company of Canada et al.</i> (<a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hntj73&seq=653">26 ICC 611</a>) was dismissed. When first launched, nuttose and protose were both mainly ground <a href="/2008/01/peanut.html">peanuts</a>, with some cereal (flour) added for consistency. But, by that time, protose was primarly <a href="/2010/04/seitan.html">wheat gluten</a> plus peanuts for consistency and oiliness. It is not clear when the change to protose took place; the Soyinfo Center, mentioned in that earlier seitan post, has a <a href="https://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/179">meat alternatives book</a> with an extensive bibliography covering this history. Patenting a recipe is tricky, as the invention must be novel and unobvious. But in 1899, Kellogg applied for one for the gluten and nuts combination and was granted <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US670283A/en?oq=US670%2c283">US670,283</a> in 1901. So this may be a factor. (An interesting <a href="https://www.kilburnstrode.com/knowledge/european-ip/plant-based-food-technology">post</a> last year by a patent attorney on recent meat substitutes suggests that that patent applied for nuttose and that protose was the 1906 <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US869371A/en?oq=US869%2c371">US869,371</a>, which added casein, making the recipe no longer <a href="/2007/01/vegan.html">vegan</a>. I am not sure that is true, but, as noted, the formulation did change. There are more follow-on patents, such as 1908 <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US1001150A/en?oq=US1%2c001%2c150">US1,001,150</a>, which adds yeast.)</p>
<p>So that, in 1904, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupert_Hughes">Rupert Hughes</a>, who was from the Midwest and had lived on London, could write in his <i>The Real New York</i>, in the “Where to Eat” chapter, of <a href="https://archive.org/details/realnewyork00hughrich/page/n295/mode/2up">vegetarian restaurants there</a>.</p>
<blockquote>
London has long had vegetarian restaurants. They are just coming in here, under bland and ladylike titles, such as “The White Rose” or “The Laurel.” But even for those who do not believe in limiting themselves to a single mania it is worth while dropping in at these places on occasion to give the stomach a rest from the meat-chopping wear and tear. The prices at these restaurants are very low; hence they have not interested the general public, which likes to pay for novelties. The vegetarians get up various amusing fooleries in imitation of steaks, cutlets, filets and ducks; they call them “true meats” and get their black effects with nuttose and protose and other “ oses.” Even the coffee is made out of blistered peanuts — or at least so it tastes. But the vegetables are amazingly well cooked, and have quite a new taste when there are no meats to distract the palate. And they do wonderful things with fresh mushrooms and nuts. Sometimes they serve a black cream of mushrooms that is worthy of a plutocrat.
</blockquote>
<p>That earlier meat substitutes post quoted Chesterton's 1909 refusal of all the <i>nut-</i> foods, including nuttose. <i>Punch</i>, for whom vegetarians were always an easy target, <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_punch_january-01-june-25-1919_156/page/490/mode/2up">once mentioned</a> protose by name.</p>
<p>Google Books search offers a <a href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=%22meatless+mockeries%22">tantalizing snippet</a> for “meatless mockeries” in <i>The American Mercury</i> of 1950, indicting protose and nuttose specifically. Using the usual snippet view tricks, it is possible to reconstruct it and so save a trip over to the Main Library to have them get this seventy-five year old volume, still held captive by copyright, sent down from storage up North. This shows that rather than being another amusing anti-vegetarian screed, it's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symon_Gould">Symon Gould</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_M._Shelton">Dr. Shelton</a> making “The Case for Natural Hygiene,” as explained <a href="https://archive.org/details/greatesthealthdi0000unse/page/154/mode/2up">here</a>, advocating for a healthier version, which seems timely now that so many restaurants have gone to Beyond versions of meat dishes as their nod toward vegetarian customers.</p>
<blockquote style="font-size:smaller">
While no hygienist would assert that man cannot live on flesh alone (witness, the short-lived Eskimo), he also knows that man is consitutionally frugivorous and that fruits and vegetables are his best fare. Therefore, the system of natural hygiene cmploys a fruit and vegetable diet, it does not follow that the average vegetarian in this country — who is rarely a hygienist — is aware of the scientific aspects of this diet. He is most often influenced by the ethical creed of his faith, and he has no scruples against using white sugar, salt, white bread, condiments of various kinds, and excessive quanities of carbohydrates. Some vegetarians are even addicted to smoking, but all such habits are excluded from the regimen of the true natural hygienist. Again, the “vegetarian” theory of nutrition is primarily concerned with abstinence from flesh, fish or fowl; it does not consider the proper balancing and combinations of foods and it consistently ignores the hygienist stricture against overeating, since many vegetarians believe that they must make up for the seeming lack of proteins in their diet by eating large quantities of cereals and legumes. They also indulge in meat-substitutes and such meatless mockeries as “protose steak,” “mock hamburger,” “nuttose veal cutlets” and other grain, peanut and soybean concentrates, which they boil or fry and serve with gravy to simulate the flesh they seem to regret having abandoned. Finally, they tend to bypass natural healing by seeking the services of a medical practitioner whenever they develop an ailment.
</blockquote>
<p>In 1919, a collection of stories by ⁧משה נאדיר⁩ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyshe_Nadir">Moyshe Nadir</a> was published, including one (joke, if you like) titled ⁧„<a href="https://archive.org/details/nybc202582/page/n75/mode/2up">נאָטוס און פּראָטוס</a>“⁩ <i>Notus un Protus</i> 'Nuttose and Protose'. An English <a href="https://archive.org/details/treasuryofjewish0000nath_k0f5/page/374/mode/2up">translation</a> by Nathan Ausubel appears in <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/976935"><i>A Treasury of Jewish Humor</i></a>. The narrator tells how they met ⁧א בחור מיט לאנגע האָר, א בעהעלפעריש בערדיל און מיט לײַװענטענע הױזען⁩ <i>a bokher mit lange hor, a behelferish berdil un mit layventene hoyzen</i> 'a young man with long hair, an assistant's (helperish) beard and with canvas (linen) pants' who asked whether they ate meat, accused them of being a cannibal, and sold them some vegetarian pamphlets. So that they ended up in a vegetarian restaurant being served by ⁧א בלײכער הוסטענדיגער הױךּ-אױפגעשפּראָצטער װעיטער, װאָס האָט אױסגעזעהן װי אַ מיטעליעהריגע ציבעלע⁩ <i>a bleykher hustendiger hoykh-oyfgeshprotster veyter, vos hot oysgezehn vi a mitelyehrige tsibele</i> 'a pale coughing skinny (tall-out-sprouter) waiter, who looked like a middle-aged scallion'. Each course is available made either from nuttose or from protose. But what arrives is consistently nondescript. Moreover, the waiter's recommendations get increasing elaborate trying to balance the relative merits of the two. Which is why the narrator is in prison charged with murder.</p>
<p>The name of the establishment is ⁧װערים־קרויט׳ס װעגעטארישען רעסטאָראנט⁩ <i>verim-kroyt's vegetarishen restorant</i>. Ausubel leaves this untranslated as “Verimkroit's Vegetarian Restaurant.” Harvey Fink, in <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/11703639/"><i>That is how it is</i></a> has “Cabbageworm's.” ⁧װערים־קרויט׳ס⁩ <i>verim-kroyt</i> 'worm cabbage', like Standard German <a href="https://woerterbuchnetz.de/?sigle=DWB&lemid=W29123"><i>Wurmkraut</i></a>, refers to herbal remedies like <a href="https://archive.org/details/englishyiddishen03abeluoft/page/1490/mode/2up">tansy</a> or <i>Artemisia</i> species with English names like <i>wormwood</i> or <a href="https://archive.org/details/englishyiddishen03abeluoft/page/1730/mode/2up"><i>wormseed</i></a>. None of which will have the unsavory implications of the original name.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Katchor">Ben Katchor</a>'s <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/4313032"><i>The Dairy Restaurant</i></a> (noted on <a href="https://languagehat.com/milchig/">LanguageHat</a> a couple years ago), with an associated <a href="http://dairyrestauranthistory.com/index.html">website</a>, pictures this world in words and illustrations and inventories dairy and Jewish vegetarian restaurants of that time, particularly in New York City. It, too, summarizes Nadir's short story.</p>
<p>Many Yiddish periodicals and booklets from that time and place have been digitized. When they have been OCRed, it is usually good enough to find something, but not accurate enough to take as is. There are also dialectical variations and different translitertion choices <em>into</em> Yiddish. Nadir chose ⁧פּראָטוס⁩ <i>protus</i>, but ⁧פּראָטאָס⁩ <i>protos</i> would be perhaps closer. That is what was chosen for an <a href="https://archive.org/details/nybc202106/page/n425/mode/2up">ad</a> by The Battle Creek Food Company in ⁧געזונט און שפייז⁩ <i>Gezunt un shpayz</i> 'Health and Food' for ⁧פּראָטאָס⁩ <i>protos</i> 'Protose' and ⁧סאַװיטא⁩ <i>savita</i> 'Savita' (paste with nutritional yeast for gravies and soups). This other form is particularly tricky to search for because it finds many false positives in transliterating <i>proto-</i> compounds or in explaining Greek πρῶτος.</p>
<p>An interesting one of these ⁧פּראָטאָס⁩ <i>protos</i> matches is the following.</p>
<blockquote>
<div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right">ענדלעך איז די קניה געשלאָסן געװאָרן. זײ האָבּן אײנגעקױפט פערד, רײז, געטרוקנט פלײש אוּן לעדערנע לאָגלען אױף װאַסער.<br/>
װען זײ זעגען צוריקגעקוּמען אין לאַגער אַרײן, האָט מען אָפּגעקאָכט אַ גוּט נאַכטעסן, װײל ס'איז שױן געװען אַרוּם אָװנטצוּ.<br/>
ראָבּערטן איז שױן געװען א סך בּעסער. טהאַלקאַװע האָט אים אָפּגעקאָכט אַזאַ מין סאָרט אַרבּעס, אָדער װי ער האָט זײ אָנגערוּפן : „פּראָטאָס“ אוּן דאָס האָט אים געדאַרפט צוּגעבּן פרישע כּוחות.<br/>
צוּפרידענע, זאַטע אוּן גליקלעכע פוּן די הײנטיקע איבּערלעבּענישן, זענען אַלע געגאַנגען שלאָפן.</div>
<i>endlekh iz di knih geshlosn gevorn. zey hobn eyngekoyft ferd, reyz, getruknt fleysh un lederne loglen af vaser.</i><br/>
<i>ven zey zegen tsurikgekumen in lager areyn, hot men opgekokht a gut nakhtesn, veyl s'iz shoyn geven arum ovnttsu.</i><br/>
<i>robertn iz shoyn geven a skh beser. thalkave hot im opgekokht aza min sort arbes, oder vi er hot zey ongerufn : "protos" un dos hot im gedarft tsugebn frishe koykhes.</i><br/>
<i>tsufridene, zate un gliklekhe fun di heyntike iberlebenishn, zenen ale gegangen shlofn.</i>
<br/>
Finally, the purchase was closed. They bought horses, rice, dried meat and leather flasks for water.<br/>
When they returned to the camp, they cooked a good dinner, because it was already around evening.<br/>
Robert was already much better. Thalcave cooked him this kind of peas, or as he called them: “protos” and that gave him fresh strength.<br/>
Satisfied, full and happy from today's experiences, everyone went to sleep.
</blockquote>
<p>This is from <a href="https://archive.org/details/nybc204813/page/n105/mode/1up">p. 104</a> of ⁧די קינדער פוּן קאַפּיטאַן גראַנט⁩ <i>di kinder fun kapitan grant</i> 'The Children of Captain Grant', a translation of <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Enfants_du_capitaine_Grant"><i>Les Enfants du capitaine Grant</i></a> / <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Search_of_the_Castaways"><i>In Search of the Castaways</i></a>. The word seems straightforward to explain in context. The title of this chapter in French is «L'espagnol de Jacques Paganel» and much of it is taken up by Paganel trying to communicate with the Patagonian, in what he believes to be Spanish and supposing there to be some sort of dialect / pronunciation problem. But then it turns out that Paganel has been carrying around Camões's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os_Lus%C3%ADadas"><i>Os Lusíadas</i></a> and so teaching himself Portuguese. The reader will have already suspected something, since Paganel's attempts quoted earlier in the chapter are recognizably Portuguese while Thalcave's responses are Spanish. Thalcave is an Araucanian (Mapuche) and his name means «Le Tonnant» / “The Thunderer”, which <a href="https://archive.org/details/diccionarioarauc01fluoft/page/224/mode/2up">checks out</a> as <i>tralkafe</i>, with a different transcription scheme for the retroflex affricate. South American Spanish has <a href="https://dle.rae.es/poroto?m=form"><i>poroto</i></a> for some kinds of beans, from the Quechua <i>purutu</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porotos_granados">Porotos granados</a> is one of those traditionally already-vegan world dishes. So it makes sense for Thalcave to call what he fed Robert that. … Except, I cannot find anywhere where Jules Verne wrote anything like this. Granted, none of these are meant to be literal translations; the chapters don't even line up exactly. But one would think the introduction of such a foreign word easy to find. But I can't in the <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nvzdkjhNOEEC/page/112/mode/2up">French</a> or the <a href="https://archive.org/details/avoyageroundwor00verngoog/page/137/mode/2up">English</a> or the <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6JEo7ldDrzcC&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&pg=PA125#v=onepage">German</a> or the <a href="https://archive.org/details/jbc.bj.uj.edu.pl.DIGDRUK001007/page/90/mode/2up">Polish</a> (The Yiddish translation was published in Warsaw — <i>Mad</i> readers will be, of course, sensitized to the perfectly ordinary <i>niepotrzebne</i> 'unnecessary' there.) or the <a href="https://archive.org/details/zhulj_vern_dity_kapitana_granta_1929/page/89/mode/2up">Russian</a> translations. I admit that I am reluctant to believe that the Yiddish translator invented this detail, but perhaps someone who knows more about it or about Verne's work will be able to explain.</p>
<p>Getting back on track, one can find incidental references to vegetarian restaurants, sometimes even in English in an otherwise Yiddish work. For example, the <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gGYqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT2#v=onepage">inside cover</a> of ⁧ראבינדראנאטה טאַגאָר⁩ <i>Rabindranath Tagore: a study and an appreciation</i> invites the reader to contact the author.</p>
<blockquote>
<a href="https://congressforjewishculture.org/lexicon/t/3490">M. I. Littauer</a><br/>
c. o. Tolstoyan Vegetarian Restaurant<br/>
55 Second Ave., N. Y. C.
</blockquote>
<p>As expected, this booklet has a <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gGYqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA22#v=onepage">section</a> on Tagore's vegetarianism.
</p>
<blockquote>
<div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right">זעלבסטפערשטענדליך, אז טאַגאָר איז אויך א וועגעטאריער. עס ווערט דערמאנט פון זיין פריינד באַסאַנאַטאַ קומאַר ראָי אז טאַגאָר און די קינדער פון זיין שול שפּייזען זיך אויף א וועגעטארישען דיעט. אין איינעם פון זיינע ביכער דערמאָנטער מיט שטאלץ דעם וועגעטאַריזם, וואָס זיין פאָלק פּראקטיצירט שוין פון טויזענדער יאָהרען. „געקאָכטע רייז, קארטאָפעל, בלומען־קרויט אָדער בעבלאך און גענוג פּוטער איז אלץ וואס ער פערלאַנגט צום עסען“ — זאָגט זיין פריינד ראָי.</div>
<i>zelbstfershtendlikh, az tagor iz oykh a vegetaryer. es vert dermant fun zeyn freynd basanata kumar roy az tagor un di kinder fun zeyn shul shpeyzen zikh af a vegetarishen dyet. in eynem fun zeyne bikher dermonter mit shtalts dem vegetarizm, vos zeyn folk praktitsirt shoyn fun toyzender yohren. "gekokhte reyz, kartofel, blumen-kroyt oder beblakh un genug puter iz alts vas er ferlangt tsum esen" - zogt zeyn freynd roy.</i>
<br/>
It goes without saying, that Tagore is also a vegetarian. It is <a href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924059290480/page/n175/mode/2up">mentioned</a> by his friend Basanata Koomar Roy that Tagore and the children of his school eat a vegetarian diet. In one of his books, he proudly mentions vegetarianism, which his people have been practicing for thousands of years. "Boiled rice, potatoes, cauliflower or beans and enough butter is all he wants to eat," <a href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924059290480/page/n181/mode/2up">says</a> his friend Roy.
</blockquote>
<p>I believe that there was a printing error and have corrected ⁧בלומען, קרויט⁩ <i>blumen, kroyt</i> 'flowers, cabbage' to ⁧בלומען־קרויט⁩ <i>blumen-kroyt</i> '<a href="https://archive.org/details/englishyiddishan00harkuoft/page/n77/mode/2up">cauliflower</a>', since that is what Roy wrote in English. I imagine there must be other German dialects besides Yiddish in which 'cauliflower' is <i>Blumenkraut</i> instead of <a href="https://woerterbuchnetz.de/?sigle=DWB&lemid=B08809"><i>Blumenkohl</i></a>, but I haven't been able to find reference to that. Cabbage is an colonial import to Bengal, arriving with the Portuguese, like potatoes, tomatoes, and chili peppers. Bengali কপি <i>kôpi</i>, along with Hindi गोभी <i>gōbhī</i> and other nearby words, 'cabbage' is from Portuguese <i>couve</i>. Cauliflower, which is the same species as cabbage, was first introduced to India as a plant in 1822 by a Dr. Jemson from Kew (see <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860710">here</a>). কপি <i>kôpi</i> became 'cauliflower' as well; the Hindi or Punjabi cognate is usually spelled <i>gobi</i> in restaurants here; when it is necessary to disambiguate, it is ফুলকপি <i>phulôkôpi</i> 'flower-', just as in English, German, French, Portuguese, and so on. Furthermore, in 1911, for Tagore's 50th birthday, a special কবিসংবর্ধনা <i>kôbisômbôrdhônā</i> 'poet tribute' was presented in the form of a cauliflower <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barfi">barfi</a> dessert. One can find the recipe by searching for the Bengali or the informal transliteration, <i>kabisambardhna</i>. I assume the কপি <i>kôpi</i> 'cauliflower' / কবি <i>kôbi</i> 'poet' pun is no accident.</p>
<p>It is not a foregone conclusion that Tagore would be a vegetarian, thousands of years notwithstanding. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmo">Brahmo</a> culture was not, as a rule. In 1921, a few years after his 1913 Nobel Prize, but too late for Littauer (1917), a collection of his letters from 1885-1895 was published as <i>Glimpses of Bengal</i>. In there, in <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57846/page/n131/mode/2up">one dated 22nd March 1894</a> (aet. 32), we can read about the incident with a domestic fowl destined for the table that prompted him to choose a vegetarian diet. The start of the last sentence of the <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.339301/page/n263/mode/2up">Bengali original</a> seems to me to suggest that this was not the first time.</p>
<blockquote>
আরও একবার নিরামিষ খাওয়া ধরে দেখব ।<br/>
<i>ārôō ēkôbār nirāmiṣ khāōẏā dhôrē dēkhôb.</i><br/>
One more time I will try to eat vegetarian.<br/>
I have decided to try a vegetarian diet. (tr. <i>Glimpses</i>)
</blockquote>
<p>Tagore wrote some biting satire as a young man. One that is somewhat relevant here is <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.339412/page/n371/mode/2up">দয়ালু মাংসাশী</a> <i>dôẏālu māṅgsāśī</i> 'Kind Carnivore', for which I cannot seem to find an English translation. Here are a few choice sentences.</p>
<blockquote>
বাঙ্গালীদের মাংস খাওয়ার পক্ষে অনেকগুলি যুক্তি আছে, তাহা আলোচিত হওয়া আবশ্যক। মার বিশ্বজনীন প্রেম, সকলের প্রতি দয়া এত প্রবল যে, আমি মাংস খাওয়া কর্ত্তব্য কাজ মনে করি।
<br/>
<i>bāṅggālīdēr māṅgs khāōẏār pôkṣē ônēkôguli jukti āchē, tāhā ālōcit hôōẏā ābôśjôk. āmār biśbôjônīn prēm, sôkôlēr prôti dôẏā ēt prôbôl jē, āmi māṅgs khāōẏā kôrttôbjô kāj mônē kôri.</i>
<br/>
There are many arguments in favor of Bengalis eating meat that need to be discussed. My universal love, kindness to all is so strong, that I consider it a duty to eat meat.
<br/>
…
<br/>
বিখ্যাত ইংরাজ কবি বলিয়াছেন যে, আমরা বোকা জানোয়ারের মাংস খাই, যেমন ছাগল, ভেড়া, গরু। অধিক উদাহরণের আবশ্যক নাই — মুসলমানেরা আমাদের খাইয়াছেন, ইংরাজেরা আমাদের খাইতেছেন।
<br/>
<i>bikhjāt iṅgrāj kôbi bôliẏāchēn jē, āmôrā bōkā jānōẏārēr māṅgs khāi, jēmôn chāgôl, bhēṛā, gôru. ôdhik udāhôrôṇēr ābôśjôk nāi — musôlômānērā āmādēr khāiẏāchēn, iṅgrājērā āmādēr khāitēchēn.</i>
<br/>
The famous English poet said that we eat the meat of foolish animals, such as goats, sheep, cattle. More examples are not necessary — the Muslims were eating us, the British are eating us.
</blockquote>
<p>To be absolutely clear, this isn't really about diet at all, but British (and earlier Mughal) imperialism.</p>
<p>Moses Littauer later featured in an <i>Esquire</i> <a href="https://classic.esquire.com/article/1939/6/1/neither-flesh-fish-nor-fowl">piece</a> in June 1939 on the New York Vegetarian Society, whose Thanksgiving feast included nuttose salad and mushrooms with protose. It traces the society's initial membership from:</p>
<blockquote>
Theosophists, Rosicrucians, Naturopaths, Anti-Vivisectionists, the Millennium Guild, the Jewish, Spanish and Communist Vegetarian Societies and kindred groups
</blockquote>
<p>More Yiddish vegetarian restaurants can be found in ads in periodicals. Some of these are health related, of course. But even more interesting (to me) are those in the radical newspapers that were also part of this environment. For example, here is the <a href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/morgnfreiheit/1929/11/19/01/article/23.2">column of restaurant ads</a> from the 19 Nov 1929 ⁧מארגן פרייהייט⁩ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgen_Freiheit"><i>Morgen Freiheit</i></a>.</p>
<ul>
<li>⁧רעסטאָראַנען⁩ <i>restoranen</i> '<b>Restaurants</b>'</li>
<li>⁧יוניטי קאָאָפּעראטיװער רעסטאָראן⁩ <i>iuniti kooperativer restoran</i> 'Unity Cooperative Restaurant'</li>
<li>⁧העלט פוד װעגעטאַרישער רעסטאָראַנט⁩ <i>helt fud vegetarisher restorant</i> 'Health Food Vegetarian Restaurant'</li>
<li>⁧חברים, עסט אין א—ס—ת—ר׳—ס סײענטיפיק װעגעטאַרישן רעסטאָראנט⁩ <i>khbrim, est in astr's seyentifik vegetarishn restorant</i> 'Comrades, Eat at Esther's Scientific Vegetarian Restaurant'</li>
<li>⁧חברים עסט אין טאָמאַס גיטמאַן רעסטאָראן, און לאָנטש־רום⁩ <i>khbrim est in tomas gitman restoran, un lontsh-rum</i> 'Comrades Eat at Thomas Gitman Restaurant, and Lunch Room'</li>
<li>⁧ראציאנאלײר װעגעטארישער רעסטאראן⁩ <i>ratsyanaleyr vegetarisher restaran</i> 'Rational Vegetarian Restaurant'</li>
<li>⁧חברים טרעפן זיך אין באָרדענ׳ס דעירי לאָנטשאָנעט⁩ <i>khbrim trefn zikh in borden's deiri lontshonet</i> 'Comrades Meet at Borden's Dairy Luncheonette'</li>
<li>⁧טרעפט אײערע פרײנט אין מעסינגער׳ס װעגעטארישער רעסטאָראן⁩ <i>treft eyere freynt in mesinger's vegetarisher restoran</i> 'Meet Your Friends at Messinger's Vegetarian Restaurant'</li>
<li>⁧איר וועט אַלעמאָל טרעפן חברים און פרײהײט-לעזער אין בראונשטײנ׳ס װעגעטאַרישער רעסטאָראַנט⁩ <i>ir vet alemol trefn khbrim un freyheyt-lezer in braunshteyn's vegetarisher restorant</i> 'You will always find comrades and⁩ <i>Freiheit</i> readers at Braunstein's Vegetarian Restaurant'</li>
<li>⁧חבה סאָלין׳ס רעסטאראן בּאנהעטן און הוליאנקעס⁩ <i>khbh solin's restoran banhetn un hulyankes</i> 'Chava Sollin's Restaurant Banquets and Parties'</li>
<li>⁧נעשמאַק,ע פרישע שפּײן הברישע אטמאָספערע אין דזשײקאָב קעטץ פּריװאטע דײנינג רום⁩ <i>neshmak,e frishe shpeyn hbr'she atmosfere in jeykob ketts private deyning rum</i> 'Delicious Fresh Spanish Hebrew Atmosphere in Jacob Ketts Private Dining Room'</li>
<li>⁧בוירד פּריוואטע רעסטאָראנט ט. שענקמאן, פּראָפּ. הײמישע מאכלים⁩ <i>boyrd private restorant t. shenkman, prop. heymishe makhlim</i> 'Byrd Private Restaurant T. Shenkman, Prop. Homemade Dishes'</li>
<li>(⁧אַלע חברים זאָלן פיקםן ןײערע ראַדיאָס בײ מאַקס פרעי א ספּעציאליסט אין ראַדיאָס פון אלע סאָרטן⁩ <i>ale khbrim zoln fikmn neyere radyos bey max frei a spetsyalist in radyos fun ale sortn</i> 'All comrades should buy new radios at Max Frei, a specialist in radios of all kinds')</li>
<li>(⁧דזשאָזעף העלפאַנד דזשענעאל ביזנעס בראַקער⁩ <i>jozef helfand jeneal biznes braker</i> 'Joseph Helfand General Business Broker')</li>
<li>(⁧פארזיכערט ד. אשינסקי⁩ <i>farzikhert d. ashinski</i> 'Insurance D. Ashinsky')</li>
</ul>
<p>⁧נאָטוס און פּראָטוס⁩ <i>Notus un Protus</i> was included in later collections of Nadir's stories, such as in <a href="https://archive.org/details/nybc208745/page/206/mode/2up">1927</a> and <a href="https://archive.org/details/nybc200487/page/n81/mode/1up">1928</a>. That latter includes <a href="https://archive.org/details/nybc200487/page/n331/mode/1up">another story</a> poking fun at the political environment of the Lower East Side then.</p>
<blockquote>
<div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right">דער אַנאַרכיסט<br/>
מײן נאָמען איז הערמאן זילבער. איך בין פינף-און-דרײסיג יאָהר אלט, טראָג נישט קײן לאנגע האָר, בין פון מיטעלען ּװאוקס, טראָג נישט קײן װינדזאָר-קראװאט און פונדעסטװעגען בין איךּ אן אנארכיסט.</div>
<i>der anarkhist</i><br/>
<i>meyn nomen iz herman zilber. ikh bin finf-un-dreysig yohr alt, trog nisht keyn lange hor, bin fun mitelen vuks, trog nisht keyn vindzor-kravat un fundestvegen bin ikh an anarkhist.</i>
<br/>
The anarchist<br/>
My name is Herman Silver. I am thirty-five years old, do not wear long hair, am of medium height, do not wear a Windsor tie and nevertheless I am an anarchist.
</blockquote>
<p>The absent neckwear would have been reminiscent of Hugo Kalmar in <a href="https://archive.org/details/icemancometh0000euge/page/4/mode/2up"><i>The Iceman Cometh</i></a>.</p>
<blockquote>
Even his flowing Windsor tie is neatly tied. There is a foreign atmosphere about him, the stamp of an alien radical, a strong resemblance to the type Anarchist as portrayed, bomb in hand, in newspaper cartoons.
</blockquote>
<p>The real world model for Hugo was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippolyte_Havel">Hippolyte Havel</a>, who had edited the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbeiter-Zeitung_(Chicago)"><i>Chicagoer Arbeiter Zeitung</i></a>. This has been <a href="https://dds.crl.edu/crldelivery/30663">digitized</a>, but not OCRed for search. A spot-check finds breweries and wurst, but it is perhaps a bit early for vegetarian restaurant ads.</p>
<p>Nadir's gag is the same as the cartoon by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Seyfried">Gerhard Seyfried</a> (who is <a href="http://gerhardseyfried.de/">still at it</a>) on the first page of the first issue of <a href="https://archive.org/details/anarchycomics3/Anarchy-Comics-1/page/n1/mode/2up"><i>Anarchy Comics</i></a> in the late '70s, mocking the cartoons that O'Neill had in mind.</p>
<p>Naturally, there were vegetarian anarchists. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacco_and_Vanzetti">Bartolomeo Vanzetti</a> was a vegetarian some of the time, “most of the time,” as portrayed in <a href="https://archive.org/details/boston0001upto/page/40/mode/2up"><i>Boston</i></a> by Upton Sinclair, who was himself a vegetarian some of the time. <i>A Fragment of the <a href="https://archive.org/details/fragmentofprison00paul/page/20/mode/2up">Prison Experiences</a> of Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman</i> describes the especially bad treatment of the vegetarians Morris Becker, arrested in 1917 along with Goldman at a peace rally and convicted of obstructing the draft for World War I (Wikipedia's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Anarchism/Anniversaries/June">anniversaries</a> amusingly mixes up Louis Kramer, also arrested there, with a baseball exec), and Nicholas Zogg, <a href="https://www.newspapers.com/article/san-francisco-chronicle-nicholas-senn-zo/918375/">arrested</a> for sending arms to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laborist_Party_(Mexico)">PLM</a> but also convicted just of obstructing the draft. <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/160640"><i>Anarchist Voices</i></a> includes reminiscences of the <a href="http://www2.scc.rutgers.edu/ead/manuscripts/Modernb.html">Stelton Modern and Stony Ford</a> Schools. <a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%95%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9F_(%D7%A9%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA)">Eva Bein</a> recalled,</p>
<blockquote>
Another thing is that we didn't eat any meat, and I remained a vegetarian until eighteen. We ate Protose and Notose [sic] in cans — mostly nuts, beans, and the like — and all sorts of Kellogg's cereals, which they would buy at Macy's and have shipped to Stony Ford, and bread without yeast.
</blockquote>
<p>Dora Keyser described running a vegetarian restaurant around 1920 on 103rd St; she <a href="https://csulb-dspace.calstate.edu/handle/10211.3/218463?show=full">remained</a> an active anarchist and vegetarian her whole life. Vegetarian restaurants were also a meeting place for radicals on the West Coast. In her autobiography, <i>Tomorrow is Beautiful</i>, the Ukraine-born activist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Robins_Lang">Lucy Robins Lang</a> <a href="https://archive.org/details/tomorrow-is-beautiful_scan/page/42/mode/2up">related</a> how Jack London, who was vegetarian at the time, persuaded her and her husband, Bob Robins, to open a vegetarian restaurant in San Francisco. It was at 418 Market St. and named the St. Helena Vegetarian Cafe. Bohemians as well as radicals congregated there until it <a href="https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a=d&d=SFC19091118.2.63&e=-------en--20--1--txt-txIN--------">burned down.</a> A difference from East Coast society is suggested by their running an ad in the <a href="https://archive.org/details/sanfranciscoblue1909sanf/page/580/mode/2up"><i>Blue Book</i></a>.</p>
<p>The most important Yiddish-language anarchist newspaper in America was ⁧פרייע אַרבעטער שטימע⁩ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraye_Arbeter_Shtime">Fraye Arbeter Shtime</a> 'Free Voice of Labor'. There is a <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1051227/">documentary</a> about it on the usual streaming services or DVD from the public library. Now, it might be unseemly for vegetarian restaurants to compete for anti-capitalist reader-diners. So six (later seven) of them appear to have regularly run a <a href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/freiearb/1919/10/18/01/article/68.1">cooperative ad</a>.</p>
<blockquote>
<div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right;font-size:larger">אַן ענטפער פון די וועגעטאַרישע רעסטאָראַנען</div>
<i>an entfer fun di vegetarishe restoranen</i><br/>
<span style="font-size:larger">An answer from the vegetarian restaurants</span><br/>
<div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right">מיר די אונטערצייכענטע וועגעטאַרישע רעסטאָראַנען קיפּערס ערקלעהרען דאָ און בעווייזען פאַקטיש, אַז די רעעלסטע און אַנשטענדיגסטע ביזנעס מעטאָדען ווערען אָנגעווענדעט אין אונזערע רעסטאָראַנען.</div>
<i>mir di untertseykhente vegetarishe restoranen kipers erklehren do un beveyzen faktish, az di reelste un anshtendigste biznes metoden veren ongevendet in unzere restoranen.</i><br/>
We the undersigned vegetarian restaurant keepers, explain here and prove actually that the most real and decent business methods are used in our restaurants.<br/>
<div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right">אַז מיר יאָגען זיף ניט נאך רויבערישע פּראָפיטען אונטער אַ וועגעטאַריש־פרומער מאַסקע צו ראַטעווען די ליידענדע מענשהייט, בעווייזט דאָ דער פאָלגענדער אויסצוג פון אונזערע ביל אָף פערס, וועלכע זיינען כמעט אין די אַלע 6 רעסטאָראַנען די זעלבע.</div>
<i>az mir yogen zif nit nakh royberishe profiten unter a vegetarish-frumer maske tsu rateven di leydende menshheyt, beveyzt do der folgender oystsug fun unzere bil of fers, velkhe zeynen khmet in di ale 6 restoranen di zelbe.</i><br/>
That we are not chasing robberish profits under a vegetarian-pious mask of saving suffering humanity, is proven by the following excerpt from our bills of fare, which are almost the same in all 6 restaurants.
</blockquote>
<ul>
<li>
⁧רעגולאַר דינער 50ס.
בעשטעהט פון: איין פאָרשפּייז, אַ קאָטלעט, סופּ און צושפּייז, ברויט און פּוטער.⁩<br/>
<i>regular diner 50s. beshteht fun: eyn forshpeyz, a kotlet, sup un tsushpeyz, broyt un puter.</i><br/>
Regular Dinner 50¢. Consists of: an appetizer, a cutlet, soup and side dish, bread and butter.
</li>
<li>
⁧איינצעלנע דישעס:⁩
<i>eyntselne dishes:</i>
Individual Dishes:
<ul>
<li>
⁧וועדזשעטייבל סופּ 10ס.⁩
<i>vejeteybl sup 10s.</i>
Vegetable Soup 10¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧באָקווהיט סופּ 10ס.⁩
<i>bokvhit sup 10s.</i>
Buckwheat Soup 10¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧רייז און מילך 10ס.⁩
<i>reyz un milkh 10s.</i>
Rice and Milk 10¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧גראנאלא און מילך 10ס.⁩
<i>granola un milkh 10s.</i>
Granola and Milk 10¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧אַלע פלייקס און מילך 10ס.⁩
<i>ale fleyks un milkh 10s.</i>
All Flakes and Milk 10¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧שרעדעד ווהיט 10ס.⁩
<i>shreded vhit 10s.</i>
Shredded Wheat 10¢.
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
⁧קאָטלעטען פון דר. קעלאָג׳ס פּראטאָס אָדער נאטאס, וועלכע איז פיעל טהייערער ווי פלייש:⁩<br/>
<i>kotleten fun dr. kelog's protos oder notos, velkhe iz fyel theyerer vi fleysh:</i><br/>
Cutlets from Dr. Kellogg's Protose or Nuttose, which is much more expensive than meat:
<ul>
<li>
⁧פּראטאס קאָטלעט 20ס.⁩
<i>protos kotlet 20s.</i>
Protose Cutlet 20¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧נאטאס קאטלעט 20ס.⁩
<i>notos kotlet 20s.</i>
Nuttose Cutlet 20¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧ראאַסטס 20ס.⁩
<i>roasts 20s.</i>
Roasts 20¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧סאַלאַטען 10ס., 15ס., 20ס.⁩
<i>salaten 10s., 15s., 20s.</i>
Salads 10¢, 15¢, 20¢.
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><br/>
<ul>
<li>
⁧עגג סענדוויטש 10ס.⁩
<i>egg sendvitsh 10s.</i>
Egg Sandwich 10¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧טאָמייטאָ סענדוויטש 10ס.⁩
tomeyto sendvitsh 10s.
Tomato Sandwich 10¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧פּראטאס סענדוויטש 15ס.⁩
<i>protos sendvitsh 15s.</i>
Protose Sandwich 15¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧נאטאס סענדוויטש 15ס.⁩
<i>notos sendvitsh 15s.</i>
Nuttose Sandwich 15¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧לעטוס סענדוויטש 10ס.⁩
<i>letus sendvitsh 10s.</i>
Lettuce Sandwich 10¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧קאפע, טילך, קאקא 5ס.⁩
<i>kafe, tilkh, kaka 5s.</i>
Coffee, Tea, Cocoa 5¢.
</li>
<li>
⁧ברויט און פּוטער 5ס.⁩
<i>broyt un puter 5s.</i>
Bread and Butter 5¢.
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<blockquote>
<div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right">אונזערע קאָפטימערם וועלען אויך באַשטעטיגען אַז מען רעדט און אַגיטירט ניט אין קיינע פון אונזערע רעסטאָראַנען, אַז מען בעהאַנדעלט אַלעמען אַנשטענדיג, אַז מען גיט גאַנץ גרויסע פּאָרציאָנען, גענוג ברויט (האָל־ווהיט, דאָם געזונדסטע און קאָסטבאַרסטע ברויט), מיר זיינען די איינציגע, וועלכע יוזען דר. קעלאָגג׳ס בעטעל קריק פּראָדוקטען, די קיטשענם זיינען אַבסאָלוט פריי פאַר אינספּעקשאָן, מיר זיינען אימער די ערשטע צו סעטלען מיט דער ווייטערס יוניאָן.</div>
<i>unzere koftimerm velen oykh bashtetigen az men redt un agitirt nit in keyne fun unzere restoranen, az men behandelt alemen anshtendig, az men git gants groyse portsyonen, genug broyt (hol-vhit, dom gezundste un kostbarste broyt), mir zeynen di eyntsige, velkhe iuzen dr. kelogg's betel krik produkten, di kitshenm zeynen absolut frey far inspekshon, mir zeynen imer di ershte tsu setlen mit der veyters iunyon.</i><br/>
Our chefs will also confirm that one does not agitate in any of our restaurants, that one treats everyone decently, that one gives quite large portions, enough bread (whole wheat, the healthiest and cheapest bread), we are the only ones who use Dr. Kellogg's Battle Creek products, the kitchens are absolutely free for inspection, we are always the first to settle with the waiters union.<br/>
<div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right">מעהר איינצעלהייטען וועט מען מיט צופריעדענהייט געבען יעדען איינעם אין אונזערע פאָלגענדע רעסטאָראַנען</div>
<i>mehr eyntselheyten vet men mit tsufryedegheyt geben yeden eynem in unzere folgende restoranen</i><br/>
More details will be gladly given to anyone in our following restaurants.
</blockquote>
<ul>
<li>
⁧ב. סאזער׳ס וועגעטאַריער רעסטאָראַן⁩<br/>
⁧6טע עוועניו, צווישען 25טע און 26טע סטריטס⁩<br/>
<i>b. sazer's vegetaryer restoran 6te eveniu, tsvishen 25te un 26te strits</i><br/>
B. Sazer's Vegetarian Restaurant<br/>
6th Avenue, between 25th and 26th Streets
</li>
<li>
⁧ב. סאזער׳ס וועגעטאַריער רעסטאָראַן⁩<br/>
⁧62 וועסט 36טע סטריט, צווישען 5טע און 6טע עוועניוס⁩<br/>
<i>b. sazer's vegetaryer restoran 62 vest 36te strit, tsvishen 5te un 6te evenius</i><br/>
B. Sazer's Vegetarian Restaurant<br/>
62 West 36th Street, between 5th and 6th Avenues
</li>
<li>
⁧טאפּילאָווסקי און מענדעלסאָן וועגעטאַריער רעסטאָראַן⁩<br/>
⁧68 ספּרינג סטריט, צווישען לאַפאַיעט און קראָסבי סטריטס⁩<br/>
<i>tapilovski un mendelson vegetaryer restoran 68 spring strit, tsvishen lafayet un krosbi strits</i><br/>
Tapilowski and Mendelssohn Vegetarian Restaurant<br/>
68 Spring Street, between Lafayette and Crosby Streets
</li>
<li>
⁧סילבערפארב׳ס וועגעטאַריער רעסטאָראַן⁩<br/>
⁧67 סעקאָנד עװ., קאָרנער 4טע סט.<br/>
<i>silberfarb's vegetaryer restoran 67 sekond ev., korner 4te st.</i><br/>
Silverfarb's Vegetarian Restaurant<br/>
67 Second Ave., corner 4th St.
</li>
<li>
⁧טאָלסטאָי וועגעטאַריער רעסטאָראַן⁩<br/>
⁧55 2טע עוועניו, צווישען 3טע און 4טע סטריטס⁩<br/>
<i>tolstoi vegetaryer restoran 55 2te eveniu, tsvishen 3te un 4te strits</i><br/>
Tolstoy Vegetarian Restaurant<br/>
55 2nd Avenue, between 3rd and 4th Streets
</li>
<li>
⁧ווינוס וועגעטאַריער רעסטאָראַן⁩<br/>
⁧26 דילענסי סטריט, צווישען פאַרפייטה און קריסטיע סטריטם⁩<br/>
<i>vinus vegetaryer restoran 26 dilensi strit, tsvishen farfeyth un kristye stritm</i><br/>
Venus Vegetarian Restaurant<br/>
26 Delancey Street, between Fairfield and Christie Streets
</li>
<li>
⁧עפנער׳ס איידיעל וועגעט. רעסטאָראַן, 1843 פּיטקין עוועניו, בראָנזוויל.⁩<br/>
<i>efner's eydyel veget. restoran, 1843 pitkin eveniu, bronzvil.</i><br/>
Efner's Ideal Veget. Restaurant, 1843 Pitkin Avenue, Brownsville.
</li>
</ul>
<p>Nor was it only working class or immigrants. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Carpenter">Edward Carpenter</a>, the anarchist philosopher and early gay-rights activist, was a vegetarian and anti-visisectionist. (See, for example, <a href="https://www.ivu.org/history/thesis/carpenter.html">here</a>.)</p>
<p>George Bernard Shaw, the most famous vegetarian of his day, asserted <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/45827/45827-h/45827-h.htm"><i>The Impossibilities of Anarchism</i></a>, as against (Fabian) Socialism. His biographer, <a href="https://www.librarything.com/nseries/18410/Holroyds-Bernard-Shaw">Michael Holroyd</a> <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qqHyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22agnostics,+anarchists+and+atheists;+dress+and+diet+reformers%22&dq=%22agnostics,+anarchists+and+atheists;+dress+and+diet+reformers%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0">summed up</a> the intersections in play then.</p>
<blockquote>
From agnostics, anarchist and atheists; dress- and diet-reformers; from economists, feminists, philanthropists, rationalists, spiritualists, all striving to destroy or replace Christianity, was the socialist revival of the late nineteenth century to be draw.
</blockquote>
<p>George Orwell <a href="https://archive.org/details/roadtowiganpier0000orwe/page/218/mode/2up">similarly felt</a> that, in the face of rising Fascism,</p>
<blockquote>
For the moment the only possible course for any decent person, however much of a Tory or an anarchist by temperament, is to work for the establishment of Socialism.
</blockquote>
<p>He sometimes described himself as a Tory Anarchist, and was, moreoever, having none of the rest, wanting socialists that were rougher and straighter. Lightly in <a href="https://archive.org/details/roadtowiganpier0000orwe/page/172/mode/2up"><i>The road to Wigan Pier</i></a>.</p>
<blockquote>
The first thing that must strike any outside observer is that Socialism in its developed form is a theory confined entirely to the middle class. The typical Socialist is not, as tremulous old ladies imagine, a ferocious-looking working man with greasy overalls and a raucous voice. He is either a youthful snob-Bolshevik who in five years' time will quite probably have made a wealthy marriage and been converted to Roman Catholicism; or, still more typically, a prim little man with a white-collar job, usually a secret teetotaller and often with vegetarian leanings, with a history of Nonconformity behind him, and, above all, with a social position which he has no intention of forfeiting.
</blockquote>
<p>And more bluntly in a <a href="https://archive.org/details/lifeinletters0000orwe/page/60/mode/2up">letter</a> to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Common">Jack Common</a>.</p>
<blockquote>
And then so many of them are the sort of eunuch type with a vegetarian smell who go about spreading sweetness and light and have at the back of their minds a vision of the working class all T.T., well washed behind the ears, readers of Edward Carpenter or some other pious sodomite and talking with B.B.C. accents.
</blockquote>
<p>One also thinks here of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Read">Herbert Read</a>, the War Poet and champion of modern art, converted to anarchism by reading Carpenter's <i>Non-Governmental Society</i> (as well as Bakunin and Kropotkin), who nevertheless accepted a knighthood in 1953 for contributions to literature. Read was never, I do not believe, a strict vegetarian. But a couple entries in the “Extracts from a Diary” (these were originally letters to his future wife Evelyn) chapter of the “War Diary” section of <i><a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/6194746">The Contrary Experience</a>: Autobiographies</i> hint in that direction: (29.xii.16) an ideal cook tolerent of his “vegetarian proclivities”; (26.x.18) “Lunch at Eustace Miles' — vegetarian!” (Meaning <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustace_Miles">Eustice Miles</a>'s restaurant on Chandos St in Charing Cross. The lunch was with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Rutter">“Toby” Rutter</a>. After lunch, they went to see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyndham_Lewis">Wyndham Lewis</a>'s exhibition, but Lewis was late, so they went round to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezra_Pound">Ezra Pound</a>'s for a while. Lewis showed up later and afterwards they went to tea with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osbert_Sitwell">Osbert</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacheverell_Sitwell">Sachie Sitwell</a>.)</p>
<p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Anarquista_Ib%C3%A9rica">FAI</a>, the capital-A Anarchists in Orwell's <i>Homage to Catalonia</i>, debated, according to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Peirats">José Peirats</a>, their <a href="https://archive.org/details/AnarquistasenlaCrisis/page/n389/mode/2up">attitude toward vegetarians</a>.</p>
<blockquote>
B) Ante las corrientes lingüísticas, vegetarianas, etc., ¿se deben formar agrupaciones naturistas, esperantistas, dentro del movimiento anarquista? Se acuerda ir a estas agrupaciones y aceptarlas también, respetándose aquella labor por ellas más preferida, con tal que al adherirse sean ante todo anarquistas.
<br/>
B) Given the linguistic, vegetarian, etc. currents, should naturist and Esperantist groups be formed within the anarchist movement? It is agreed to go to these groups and accept them as well, respecting the work they most prefer, as long as when they join they are above all anarchists.
</blockquote>
<p>Which adds another idealist dimension closer to the focus of this blog, language reformers and Esperantists in particular. It also takes us back to the starting point of this post, as Yiddish was one of Zamenhof's native languages. Wikipedia has a whole page on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism_and_Esperanto">Anarchism and Esperanto</a>. As for Vegetarianism and Esperanto, for the 8th Esperanto Congress in Kraków, in 1912, the following arrangements were made.</p>
<blockquote>
<em>Vegetarana restoracio</em> — Konsiderante la fakton ke inter la esperantistoj troviĝas sufiĉe multaj vegetaranoj la Komitato faris kontrakton kun vegetarana restoracio kies mastrino kaj servistaro parolas Esperanton.</br>
<em>Vegetarian restaurant</em> — Considering the fact that there are quite a few vegetarians among Esperantists, the Committee made a contract with a vegetarian restaurant whose owner and staff speak Esperanto.
</blockquote>
<p>The International Vegetarian Union (IVU) has a <a href="http://www.ivu.org/history/societies/esperanto.html">page</a> on the <i>Tutmonda Esperantista Vegetarana Asocio</i> (TEVA) '<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Esperantist_Vegetarian_Association">World Esperantist Vegetarian Association</a>'. (The two organizations were started at the same time and place, Dresden August 1908, where <a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Arthur_Gill">J. Arthur Gill</a> arranged for vegetarian Esperantists to meet at the time of the 4th <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Esperanto_Congress">Esperanto Congress</a>, and then for non-Esperantists to meet there a little before and form the broader organization.) BitArkivo.org has scans of its <a href="https://bitarkivo.org/gazetoj/vegetarano"><i>Vegetarano</i></a> from the '20s to the '60s and <a href="https://bitarkivo.org/gazetoj/esperantistavegetarano"><i>Esperantista Vegetarano</i></a> from the '70s into this century. Zamenhof's <i>Fundamenta krestomatio</i> <a href="https://archive.org/details/dlibra.kul.pl.39626_Esper--2-I_Fundamenta-krestomat/page/186/mode/2up">includes</a> <i>Kio estas vegetarismo?</i> 'What is vegetarianism?'.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.circle.org/yiddish-instructor-profiles/eve-jochnowitz">Eve Jochnowitz</a>, Yiddish scholar, culinary historian, and vegetarian, wrote a paper, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv15wxndq.7">A Younger World</a>: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies,” that puts such writing in the context of “Socialism, Anarchism, Zionism, and Aguda.” It too retells Nadir's “Nutose un Protose” story, noting that she was surprised to learn that these were real products. But it also translates part of a letter from Sholem Aleichem to Joseph Perper where he says, apropos of communicating with Zamenhof about publishing Esperanto translations of his work, “Vegetarianism and Esperanto stem from the same ideological root.” This is from a piece “Sholem Aleichem Un Zayn Batsiung Tsum Vegetarizm,” 'Sholam Aleichem and his attitude toward vegetarianism' in ⁧דער וועגעטארישער געדאנק⁩ <i>der vegetarisher gedank</i> 'The Vegetarian Idea'. This <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/search?q=ti%3ADer+v%CC%A3eget%CC%A3arisher+gedank%CC%A3">periodical</a> only ran for three issues and this is from no. 3 of March 1930; among all libraries, Harvard only has no. 1 and NYPL only has no. 2. Only <a href="https://search.cjh.org/primo-explore/search?vid=beta&query=any,contains,970892744">CJH</a>'s YIVO Vilna Collection, where I believe Jochnowitz works, has all three. In any case, the original is far away and there may be some time before it is digitized.</p>
<p>But what of vegetarian anarchist Esperantists? Esperanto was one of the courses at the Stelton Modern School mentioned above. Outside of America, the Pearce Register of First World War Conscientious Objectors on the Imperial War Museum's website includes one <a href="https://livesofthefirstworldwar.iwm.org.uk/lifestory/7654496">William Greaves</a> (b. 1885), a shipping clerk, objected with the motivation,<p>
<blockquote>
Non-Sect; NCF (No-Conscription Fellowship); Anarchist-Communist; Esperanto; Vegetarian;
</blockquote>
<p>The record there ends in 1917 with him having served a prison sentence with hard labour for disobeying orders in the Non-Combatant Corps.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lis%C3%A9e_Reclus">Élisée Reclus</a>, the vegetarian anarchist geographer, wrote approvingly of Esperanto in <a href="https://archive.org/details/lhommeetlaterre00reclgoog/page/466/mode/2up"><i>L'homme et la terre</i></a>.</p>
<blockquote>
C'est, d'un côté, que le sentiment de fraternité internationale a sa part dans le désir d'employer une langue commune, sentiment qui se rencontre surtout chez les travailleurs socialistes, hostiles à toute idée de guerre, et, de l'autre, que l'esperanto, plus facile à apprendre que n'importe quelle autre langue, s'offre de prime abord aux travailleurs ayant peu de loisir pour leurs études.
<br/>
It is, on the one hand, that the feeling of international brotherhood has its part in the desire to use a common language, a feeling which is found especially among socialist workers, hostile to any idea of war, and, on the other hand, that Esperanto, easier to learn than any other language, is readily available to workers who have little time for their studies.
</blockquote>
<p>The Weimar anarchists of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationaler_Sozialistischer_Kampfbund">ISK</a> were required to be vegetarians. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Nelson">Leonard Nelson</a> asserted this as a basic commitment outside of any consensus, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3IAtAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA81&pg=PA81#v=onepage">writing,</a></p>
<blockquote>
Ein Arbeiter, der nicht nur ein „verhinderter Kapitalist“ sein will, und dem es also Ernst ist mit dem Kampf gegen jede Ausbeutung, der beugt sich nicht der verächtlichen Gewohnheit, harmlose Tiere auszubeuten, der beteiligt sich nicht an dem täglichen millionenfachen Mord, der an Grausamkeit, Rohheit und Feigheit alle Schrecknisse des Weltkriegs in den Schatten stellt.<br/>
Das sind Angelegenheiten, Genossen, die entziehen sich der Abstimmung.
<br/>
A worker who does not just want to be a “would-be capitalist” and who is serious about the fight against all exploitation does not give in to the contemptible habit of exploiting harmless animals, he does not take part in the daily murder of millions that in terms of cruelty, brutality and cowardice, eclipses all the horrors of the World War.<br/>
These are matters, comrades, that cannot be voted on.
</blockquote>
<p>The ISK published <i>La Kritika observanto: revuo politika kaj kultura</i> 'The Critical observer: a political and cultural magazine'. There seem to only be a few copies in <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/title/50242755">libraries</a> and only <a href="https://search.onb.ac.at/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=ONB_alma21357758320003338&context=L&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&vid=ONB&lang=de_DE&search_scope=ONB_gesamtbestand&tab=default_tab&query=addsrcrid,exact,AC03743765">one issue</a> has been digitized. (The BnF WorldCat entry actually points to this ÖNB copy.) It is not listed in the <a href="https://lidiap.ficedl.info/">LIDIAP</a>. But copies do show up in used bookstores occasionally. As might be expected, its few ads are for other printed matter.</p>
<p>Esperanto is strongly associated with Chinese anarchists at the start of the twentieth century, of which there were two groups, one in France and one in Japan. 新世紀 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xin_Shiji"><i>Xin Shiji</i></a> 'New Century', published in Paris 1907-1910, <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924079492009&seq=10">started out</a> with a subtitle <i>La Tempoj Novaj</i> 'New Times', but <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924079491829&seq=8">later</a> switched to <i>La Siècle Nouveau</i> 'New Century'. It ran some <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924079492009&seq=32">articles</a> on 萬國新語 <i>wànguó xīnyǔ</i> 'Esperanto'. One of the leaders of this group and funder of its printing was 李石曾 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Shizeng">Li Shizeng</a>, who was a vegetarian as well as an anarchist and did much to introduce soy foods to Europe. To this end, and to provide funds and a place to employ Chinese students from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diligent_Work-Frugal_Study_Movement">Work-Study Movement</a>, he started <i>Usine de la Caséo-Sojaïne</i> / 巴黎豆腐工廠 <i>Bālí dòufu gōngchǎng</i> 'Paris tofu factory'. Again, the Soyinfo Center has a <a href="https://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/144">book</a> with extensive bibliography and illustrations on this.</p>
<p>天義報 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianyi_bao"><i>Tianyi bao</i></a> 'Journal of Natural Justice', published in Tokyo 1907-1908, printed a <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nnc1.cu04918614&seq=349">strange drawing</a> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolphe_Willette">Adolphe Willette</a> titled <i>Al Elisée Reclus</i> and subtitled <i>Unu mamo por ĉiu / Unu koro por ĉiuj</i> 'A breast for each / A heart for all'. The scan is pretty hard to make out; the same picture appeared as a postcard and better images of it can be found on a site for <a href="https://cartoliste.ficedl.info/article414.html?lang=en">anarchist postcards</a> and another for a <a href="https://www.akpool.fr/cartes-postales/26193997-kuenstler-carte-postale-willette-a-unu-mamo-por-ciu-uno-koro-por-ciuj-saeugende-elise-reclus-anarchismus">postcard dealer</a>.</p>
<p>There was debate on what to call Esperanto in Chinese. In addition to the above 萬國新語 <i>wànguó xīnyǔ</i> 'new language for ten thousand nations', there was the more direct 世界語 <i>shìjiè yǔ</i> 'world language' — which would eventually win, a calque 希望者 <i>xīwàng zhě</i> 'hoping one', a phonetic approximation 愛斯不難讀 <i>àisībùnándú</i> 'loved as not difficult to read', and a shorter phonetic 愛世語 <i>àishìyǔ</i> 'love the world language'.</p>
<p>The most important anarchist in China was 師復 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Shifu"><i>Shifu</i></a>. He was born 劉兆彬 <i>Liu Shaobin</i>, changed his name and then dropped the family name 劉 <i>Liu</i> altogether as part of a rejection of the family system, in which both clans divided people and men dominated women through marriage. In Esperanto, he wrote as <i>Sifo</i>. In 1912, after reading 新世紀 <i>Xin Shiji</i>, he converted to anarchism and started the 心社 <i>Xin She</i> 'Conscience Society'. In 1913, he founded the journal 晦鳴錄 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huiminglu"><i>Huiming lu</i></a> 'Cock-Crow Record', with subtitle 平民之聲 <i>pingmin zhi sheng</i> 'Voice of the Common People' and Esperanto title <i>La Voĉo de la Popolo</i> 'The Voice of the People'; the Chinese name was later shortened to just 民聲 <i>Min Sheng</i> 'Voice of the People'. On the <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858022056026&seq=34">second page</a> of the first issue, Shifu laid out each of their principles.</p>
<ul>
<li>共產主義。 <i>gòngchǎn zhǔyì.</i> 'communism'</li>
<li>反對軍國主義。 <i>fǎnduì jūnguó zhǔyì.</i> 'anti-militarism'</li>
<li>工團主義。 <i>gōngtuán zhǔyi.</i> 'syndicalism'</li>
<li>反對宗教主義。 <i>fǎnduì zōngjiào zhǔyì.</i> 'anti-religion-ism'</li>
<li>反對家族主義。 <i>fǎnduì jiāzú zhǔyì.</i> 'anti-family-ism'</li>
<li>素食主義。 <i>sùshí zhǔyì.</i> 'vegetarianism'</li>
<li>語言統一。 <i>yǔyán tǒngyī.</i> 'language unification'</li>
<li>萬國大同。 <i>wànguó dàtóng.</i> '<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Unity">Great Harmony</a> for all nations'</li>
</ul>
<p>Note how the first two pages have Esperanto headings, <i>Deklaracio</i> 'Declaration' and <i>Klarigo pri anarĥismo</i> 'Explanation of anarchism'. <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858022056026&seq=107&q1=vegetarismo&start=1">Elsewhere</a> there is 素食主義淺說 <i>sùshí zhǔyì qiǎnshuō</i> 'A brief introduction to vegetarianism' headed <i>La vegetarismo</i>.</p>
<p>Shifu and his comrades formed an urban commune to try to put these principles into practice. They planned a rural commune, but those plans were never accomplished. Despite their commitment in principle to gender equality, the cooking and cleaning were done by Shifu's sisters. (His brothers and sisters helped operate the printing press and the sisters also did the binding.) Changes in eating seem to have mostly been using tofu instead of meat, and, for some reason, forks instead of chopsticks. Those details come from an unpublished <i>Huiyi Shifu</i> (回憶師復, I imagine) 'Recollections of Shifu' by 莫纪彭 Mo Jipeng, related in Edward Krebs, <i><a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/1163501/257074581">Shifu</a>: Soul of Chinese Anarchism</i>. There is also <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/title/610101047">莫紀彭先生訪問紀錄</a> / <i>Mo Jipeng xian sheng fang wen ji lu</i> 'The Reminiscences of Mr. Mo Jie-peng', which <em>was</em> published about the same time (1997) as that biography (1998). I think these are two different documents, covering similar memories, but I might be confused. The latter is in <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vWiLAAAAIAAJ">Google Books</a>. Snippet view isn't hopeless, but it helps to know that it uses the more modern 世界語 <i>shìjiè yǔ</i> 'world language' for 'Esperanto' and both 無政府 <i>wúzhèngfǔ</i> 'no government' and the phonetic 安那其 <i>ānnàqí</i> for 'anarchy'. As well as a summary of anarchist history (with some badly mangled European names in Roman type, transcribed from handwriting, I suppose: <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vWiLAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Elesee+Reckno%22+intitle:%E8%8E%AB%E7%B4%80%E5%BD%AD%E5%85%88%E7%94%9F%E8%A8%AA%E5%95%8F%E7%B4%80%E9%8C%84&dq=%22Elesee+Reckno%22+intitle:%E8%8E%AB%E7%B4%80%E5%BD%AD%E5%85%88%E7%94%9F%E8%A8%AA%E5%95%8F%E7%B4%80%E9%8C%84">Elesee Reckno</a>), he recalls slogans like 素食爲大同起點之情! <i>sùshí wèi dàtóng qǐdiǎn zhī qíng</i> 'Vegetarianism is the starting point of Datong!' But also more personal details, such as that the others had a nickname for Shifu of 「正經先生」 <i>zhèngjīng xiānshēng</i> “Mr. Serious.” (Krebs has 'Mr. Earnest', but that suggests the Wildean pun to me.) Or that 烹調是香烈的! <i>pēngtiáo shì xiāng liè de</i> 'The cooking was fragrant and strong!'</p>
<p>Shifu died in 1915. Issue <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858022056026&seq=311&q1=Popolo&start=1">No. 23</a> ran a special tribute to him, with a picture titled <i>S-ro Sifo</i> 'Mr. Sifo' and 師​復​者​遺像 <i>Shī​fù​zhě​yíxiàng</i> 'Portrait of Shifu'. The Esperanto version from <i>La Voĉo de la Popolo</i> is not scanned here (or anywhere else I can find). All these Google Books scans are actually of a 1967 reprint, edited by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Bernal">Martin Bernal</a>, still a postdoc at Cambridge and far away from any controveries about the Classical World. (The 1992 <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/title/48771746?oclcNum=48771746">reprint</a>, edited by <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8B%AD%E9%96%93%E7%9B%B4%E6%A8%B9">狭間直樹</a> Naoki Hazama, might be more complete.) But it appears to have been <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dLNYAAAAMAAJ&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&pg=RA4-PA143#v=onepage">reproduced</a> in <i>The British Esperantist</i> of August 1915. Both list the principles of 心社 <i>Xin She</i> 'Conscience Society' <i>Konscienco</i>.</p>
<ol>
<li>不食肉。<i>bù shíròu.</i> 'Do not eat meat.' <i>kontraŭ viando</i></li>
<li>不飲酒。<i>bù yǐnjiǔ.</i> 'Do not drink liquor.' <i>kontraŭ alkoholo</i></li>
<li>不吸煙。<i>bù xīyān.</i> 'Do not smoke tobacco.' <i>kontraŭ tabako</i></li>
<li>不用僕役。<i>bùyòng púyì.</i> 'Do not use servants.' <i>kontraŭ sklaveco</i></li>
<li>不乘轎及人力車。<i>bù chéng jiào jí rénlìchē.</i> 'Do not ride in sedan-chairs or rickshas.' <i>kontraŭ homveturilo</i></li>
<li>不婚姻。<i>bù hūnyīn.</i> 'Do not marry.' <i>kontraŭ edzeco</i></li>
<li>不稱族姓。<i>bù chēng zú xìng.</i> 'Do not use a family name.' <i>kontraŭ familieco</i></li>
<li>不作官吏。<i>bùzuò guānlì.</i> 'Do not serve as an official.' <i>ne ŝtatoficistiĝo</i></li>
<li>不作議員。<i>bùzuò yìyuán.</i> 'Do not serve as a member of a representative body.' <i>ne deputatiĝo</i></li>
<li>不入政黨。<i>bù rù zhèngdǎng.</i> 'Do not join a political party.' <i>ne politikpartianiĝo</i></li>
<li>不作海陸軍人。<i>bùzuò hǎi lùjūn rén.</i> 'Do not serve in the army or navy.' <i>ne militistiĝo</i></li>
<li>不奉宗教。<i>bù fèng zōngjiào.</i> 'Do not believe in a religion.' <i>kontraŭ religio</i></li>
</ol>
<p> Those English translations are Krebs's. The original list can also be found <a href="https://www.marxists.org/chinese/liushifu/mia-chinese-zgt-19140613.htm">here</a> in an collection of Shifu's writings in Chinese, hosted by Marxists, that also <a href="https://www.marxists.org/chinese/liushifu/mia-chinese-zgt-19140418.htm">transcribes</a> a <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858022056026&seq=103&q1=Internationale&start=1">defense</a> of Esperanto headed in French, <i>Les Anarchistes et la Internationale Langue“Esperanto”</i>, but nothing of diet outside the whole list.</p>
<p>Perhaps more importantly, and maybe even as a testament to the idea that using Esperanto might reach a worldwide audience (plus circling this post back), Emma Goldman's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Earth_(magazine)"><i>Mother Earth</i></a> published a <a href="https://archive.org/details/mother-earth/Mother%20Earth%20v10n08%20%281915-10%29%20%28c2c%20Harvard%29/page/284/mode/2up">translation</a> of part of that tribute from Esperanto into English by the British Esperantist H[arry] E. Shaw, though it does not repeat all the principles (beyond implying anarchism) or even mention his vegetarianism. 民聲 <i>Min Sheng</i> 'Voice of the People' continued to be published sporadically in Shanghai through 1916. In 1921, it was restarted in Canton. The Esperanto and English supplements for these last issues <em>are</em> included in the scan. For instance, <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858022056026&seq=458&q1=Popolo&start=1">No. 31</a> of April 1921, with a piece on Kropotkin, who had just died. But this was possibly without as much effort to meld all Shifu's <i>-isms</i>.</p>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-17731176098982541402023-11-02T19:49:00.009-05:002024-01-02T21:33:30.907-05:00Maize 2<p>More European words following the same ideas as <a href="/2023/11/maize-1.html">previously</a> include:</p>
<ul>
<li>Catalan <i>blat de moro</i> 'Moor's wheat'.</li>
<li>Hungarian <i>törökbúza</i> 'Turkish wheat'.</li>
<li>Basque <i>arto</i>, which originally meant 'millet'.</li>
<li>Bulgarian царевица <i>tsarevitsa</i> < Цариград <i>Tsarigrad</i> 'Imperial City', that is, Constantinople / Instanbul.</li>
<li>Welsh <i>indrawn</i> is just <i>Ind-</i> + <i>grawn</i> 'India grain'.</li>
</ul>
<p>A number of Slavic languages have something like Russian кукуру́за <i>kukurúza</i>. <a href="https://starlingdb.org/cgi-bin/response.cgi?basename=\data\ie\vasmer&text_word=%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B0&method_word=beginning&ww_word=on">Vasmer</a> says, «Трудное слово», 'it's a difficult word'. He does cite <a href="https://archive.org/details/wortgeographiede00kretuoft/page/330/mode/1up">Kretchmer</a>'s idea that it is from the sound one makes when feeding cornmeal to turkeys. In addition to such a <i>cucuruz</i>, Romanian <a href="https://www.dex.ro/porumb"><i>porumb</i></a> originally meant 'pigeon', on account of the shape, and a regional <i>păpușoi</i> is from păpușă 'doll'.</p>
<p>Around the Mediterranean, the imputed source may need to change.</p>
<ul>
<li>Turkish <i>mısır</i> 'Egyptian', short for <i>mısır buğdayı</i> 'Egyptian wheat' or <i>mısır darısı</i> 'Egyptian millet'.</li>
<li>Likewise, Armenian: եգիպտացորեն <i>egiptacʿoren</i> 'Egyptian wheat'.</li>
<li>Conversely, in Egyptian Arabic, ذُرَةٌ <i>dhura</i> is either 'sorghum' or 'maize', per <a href="http://arabiclexicon.hawramani.com/%d8%b0%d8%b1%d9%88/?book=50">Lane</a> (<a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000130.pdf">scan</a>), the former is disambiguated as ذُرَة صَيْفِىّ <i>dhura sayfia</i> 'summer sorghum' or ذُرَة قَيْظِىّ <i>dhura qayzia</i> 'spring sorghum' and the latter ذُرَة شَامِىّ <i>dhura shamia</i> 'Syrian sorghum' or ذُرَة كِيزَان <i>dhura kizan</i> 'vessel(?) sorghum'.</li>
<li>Maltese qamħirrun = qamħ ir-rum 'wheat of the Romans'.</li>
</ul>
<p>Modern Hebrew תירס <i>tiras</i> was named (in imitation of the European "Turkish grain" words) for <a href="https://www.blueletterbible.org/lexicon/h8494/wlc/wlc/0-1/">Tiras</a>, one of the sons of Japheth in Genesis 10:2, because of an association with Turkey. In his <i>Dictionary</i>, <a href="https://www.sefaria.org/Klein_Dictionary%2C_%D7%AA%D6%B4%D6%BC%D7%99%D7%A8%D6%B8%D7%A1?lang=bi">s.v.</a>, Klein has a rant against this, partly because in the <a href="https://mg.alhatorah.org/Dual/Targum_Yerushalmi_(Neofiti)/Bereshit/10.2#m7e0n6">Targum</a> (and the Protestant <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Bochart">Samuel Bochart</a>'s <a href="https://archive.org/details/ita-bnc-mag-00002427-001/page/172/mode/2up"><i>Phaleg</i></a>, which similarly aimed to equate modern names with the tribes of Noah), תירס <i>Tiras</i> is תרקא <i>tarreka</i> Thracia, and according to some in the <a href="https://www.sefaria.org/Yoma.10a?lang=bi">Talmud</a>, פָּרַס <i>pāras</i> 'Persia'; so something else is needed if you want Turkey.</p>
<p>In Persian, the normal word is ذرت <i>zorrat</i>, borrowed from that Arabic ذُرَّة <i>dhura</i>, and like it formerly meaning 'sorghum'. An older term (according to, for instance, <a href="https://kesht-sanat.ir/%D8%A2%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%B4/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C-%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B2%DB%8C/P2761/">here</a>) was گندم مکه <i></i> 'Mecca wheat'. This idea is also found to the North and East around the Caspian. The main Azeri word is <i>qarğıdalı</i>, evidently from <i>qarğı</i> 'reed'. But (according to <a href="https://e-derslik.edu.az/books/600/units/unit-1/page12.xhtml">this</a>), there are other regional forms, such as <i>məkkə-buğda</i> 'Mecca wheat' in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakhchivan_Autonomous_Republic">Nakhchivan</a> and <a herf="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lankaran_District">Lankaran</a>, <i>yekə buğda</i> 'big wheat' in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balakan_District">Balakan</a> and <a herf="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagatala_District">Zagatala</a>, and <i>hacı-buğda</i> 'Haji wheat' in (Azerbaijani speaking parts of ?) Dagestan. So too, Turkmen <i>mekgejöwen</i>, Uzbek <i>makkajoʻxori</i>, Tajik Ҷуворимакка 'Mecca sorghum', sometimes shortened, as it is in Kazak жүгері <i>jügerı</i> / Kyrgyz жүгөрү <i>jügörü</i>; this second part coming from Pers. جواری <i>jovâri</i> 'sorghum' (<a href="https://archive.org/details/grundrissderneu00horngoog/page/n117/mode/1up">Horn</a>), also the Dari word for 'maize', and cognate with Sanskrit यव <i>yava</i>, “barley”. (<i>jowari</i> is enough of an English word to make it into the OED.)</p>
<p>In the actual Indian subcontinent, Indian corn is also often <i>makka</i>. So <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makki_ki_roti">makki ki roti</a>, a maize flatbread, served with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarson_ka_saag">sarson ka saag</a>, mustard greens: ਮੱਕੀ ਦੀ ਰੋਟੀ + ਸਰੋਂ ਦਾ ਸਾਗ is (or is marketed as) quintessential Punjabi street food. Around here, the makki ka atta used seems to be coarser than masa harina, so the bread is stiffer than tortillas. More examples: Hindi मक्का / Urdu مکا‎ <i>makkā</i> or <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/mcgregor_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%88&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact">मकई</a> <i>makaī</i>, Marathi <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/molesworth_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE&searchhws=yes">मका</a> <i>makā</i>, Oriya <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/praharaj_query.py?qs=%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%BE&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact">ମକା</a> <i>môka</i>, Gujarati <a href="">મકાઈ</a> <i>makāī</i>, Tamil <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/winslow_query.py?qs=%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact">மக்காச்சோளம்</a> <i>makkāccōḷam</i>, Telugu <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/brown_query.py?qs=%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8A%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95&searchhws=yes">మొక్కజొన్న</a> <i>mokkajonna</i>, Kannada <a href="">ಮೆಕ್ಕೆ ಜೋಳ</a> <i>mekke jōḷa</i>. Malayalam is <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/gundert_query.py?qs=%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82&searchhws=yes">മക്കച്ചോളം</a> <i>makkacōḷaṁ</i> or just ചോളം <i>cōḷaṁ</i>, that part being common <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/burrow_query.py?qs=co%CC%84%E1%B8%B7am,%20co%E1%B9%89%E1%B9%89al&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact">Dravidian</a> for 'sorghum'. (<i>cholum</i> is also enough of an English word to make it into the OED.)</p>
<p>The conventional explanation, again, is that <i>makka</i> is 'Mecca', that being, following the common pattern, the supposed origin. If not entirely fanciful, it would presumably be the Spanish who brought it from the New World to the Arabs.</p>
<p>But there is also a controversy of long standing looking to prove Pre-Columbian origins for maize in Asia and the Subcontinent in particular. Some of this focuses on physical evidence. For example, from the late '80s:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25765693">American Crop Plants in Asia prior to European Contact</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4255150">Maize Ears Sculptured in 12th and 13th Century A.D. India as Indicators of Pre-Columbian Diffusion</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/335773c0">'Maize' in Somnathpur, an Indian mediaeval temple</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4255505">Maize Ears Not Sculpted in 13th Century Somnathpur Temple in India</a></li>
</ul>
<p>This debate continues on <a href="https://www.asc.ohio-state.edu/mcculloch.2/arch/maize.html">Usenet</a>, blogs and other <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131001061125/http://geography.uoregon.edu/carljohannessen/research.html">personal sites</a>, and now social media. As far as I can tell, the evidence for and against has not much changed in decades, even while the details have been worked out in the development of maize from teosinte in Central America and the spread of the various early maize races throughout the Americas. It is now possible, though, to access <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Reliefs_and_sculptures_at_the_Hoysaleswara_Temple">higher resolution photos</a> and even a <a href="https://youtu.be/pBTJcEDstA0?t=811">video tour</a> of the statues with what might be corn cobs.</p>
<p>Concentrating on the words, an early origin would imply that there ought to be Sanskrit words for maize. <a href="https://archive.org/details/DictionaryOfTheEconomicProductsOfIndia64/page/n329/mode/2up">Watt</a> gives a few and takes three 'corn' entries from Monier-Williams, which he then decides were probably millet or sorghum. (It is unfortunately easy to <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=sasyam+sasyavisesha">find</a> recent online papers quoting these very ones as evidence of an early maize arrival.) Turner has <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/soas_query.py?qs=markaka&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact"><i>markaka</i></a>, a word attested only in lexicographical works, as the source of 'maize' words from Ḍumāki <i>mʌkæi</i> to Marāṭhī <i>makā</i>. His gloss for the headword is 'Ardea argala', as in <a ahref="https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=791">Monier-Williams</a>, preceded by:</p>
<blockquote>
मर्क् <i>mark</i> (prob. invented to serve as the source of the words below), to go, move.
</blockquote>
<p>But <i>Ardea argala</i> is an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_adjutant">adjutant bird</a>. Still McGregor has <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/mcgregor_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact">two entries</a> for Hindi मक्का <i>makkā</i>, with the 'maize' sense “conn[ected with] <i>markaka-</i>.” This is copied into <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE#Etymology_1">Wiktionary</a>, whose <a href="https://www.fulcrum.org/epubs/nz806174f">second Reference</a> does (p. 106) note Central Asian <i>mäkkä-jokhari</i> (see above) and so the possible Mecca derivation. On the other hand, Václav Blažek, in article analyzing 15 <a href="https://www.academia.edu/38384844/IEbarley_Copenhagen2012_2017_pdf">Indo-European 'barley'</a> words, sums his theory up (<b>2.4.5</b>) as a <i>*mr̥k-</i> 'seeds of barley', as 'kind of corn which must be irrigated' from <i>*merk-</i> 'to dip', which also explains a water bird. But the path of Mecca jowari would need explaining.</p>
<p>Or there is <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/soas_query.py?qs=marka%E1%B9%ADaka&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact"><i>markaṭaka</i></a> 'a species of grass', from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apastamba_Dharmasutra">Āpastamba</a>'s <i>Śrautasūtra</i>, which Turner compares to <i>markaka-</i>. It also occurs in food lists in the <a href="https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-markandeya-purana/d/doc117066.html#note-e-67786">Mārkaṇḍeya</a> and <a href="https://archive.org/details/padma_purana_part1_english/page/n53/mode/2up">Padma</a> Puranas. It seems to be <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleusine_coracana#In_India">ragi</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guwahati">Gauhati</a> copper-plate grant of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indra_Pala">Indrapala</a> has boundaries involving a <a href="https://archive.org/details/journalofasiatic6618asia/page/126/mode/2up">makkhi-yāna</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hoernl%C3%A9">Dr. Hoernle</a> (met <a href="/2007/11/garlic-origins.html">here before</a> on account of the Bower Manuscript) points out that this might be 'the road lined with maize (-fields)' or another form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euryale_ferox"><i>makhānā</i></a> (which is coincidentally <a href="https://www.exportersindia.com/search.php?srch_catg_ty=prod&term=Makkhana&cont=IN&ss_status=N">popped</a> like popcorn).</p>
<p>All of this is obviously colored by nationalism and religion, particularly in our present climate. Makki-di-roti <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makki_ki_roti#Mode_of_serving">probably isn't</a> ancient Punjabi cuisine. (“<a href="https://twitter.com/search?q=Makki%20di%20roti%20is%20colonial%20violence">Makki di roti is colonial violence</a>” might be trolling / Poe's law.) But it is, at worst, a happy accident of colonialism, like banh mi or nem.</p>
<p>Another set of words includes Bengali <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/biswas-bengali_query.py?qs=%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact">ভুট্টা</a> / Hindi <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/mcgregor_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact">भुट्टा</a> / Urdu <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/platts_query.py?qs=%D8%A8%D9%87%D9%BF%D8%A7&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact">بهٿا</a> <i>bhuṭṭā</i>, which McGregor, Platts, and Turner trace to <a href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/soas_query.py?qs=bhr%CC%A5%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADa&searchhws=yes&matchtype=default">bhr̥ṣṭá¹</a> 'fried / roasted'. But another possibility is that it is related to Indian words for Tibet / Bhutan (and so like <a href="/2010/03/bhut-jolokia.html">Bhut Jolokia</a>).</p>
<p>As to the earlier suspicion that by <i>bútás</i> Burton meant <i>bhuṭṭā</i> and the reasonableness of doing that in an African context. First, in one of his <i>Letters from the Battle-fields of Paraguay</i> <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.03714/page/457/mode/2up">he wrote</a>, “the ‘búta’ of Hindostan, young maize roasted or boiled.” Likewise, back in Africa, his 1859 report to the Royal Geographical Society on “The Lake Regions of Central Equatorial Africa” has several pages of agriculture and the paragraph on <i>Zea mays</i> <a href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-1798278/page/n399/mode/2up">contains</a>, “green maize or young ‘corn-cob,’ the buta of Western India.” The two volume <i>Lake Regions Of Central Africa</i>, published the next year, does not have either the botanical name or the India reference. Elsewhere, someone's report, “Sketches of Abyssinia,” taken from <i>Indian Public Opinion</i>, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IM_pVXmcXxYC&pg=PA522#v=onepage&q&f=false">says:</a></p>
<blockquote>
Besides these they have the <i>bhutta</i>, or the Indian corn, which they call <i>mashela bahry</i> [<a href="https://dictionary.abyssinica.com/maize">ምሸላ ባሕሪ</a>], or corn from the sea—their usual method of distinguishing any foreign importation.
</blockquote>
<p>So it works, given the right audience and maybe a little more qualification than the Pongo-land passage had.</p>
<p>In East Africa, Swahili <a href="https://archive.org/details/zanzibarcityisla02burt/page/275/mode/1up"><i>muhindi</i></a> (Burton mentioned it in that RGS report and here in Zanzibar) indicates that maize comes from India.</p>
<p>In his journal on the Second Zambesi expedition, on Aug 31, 1858, Dr. Livingstone <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4588/page/n101/mode/1up">recorded</a> his analysis of a common pattern for maize names:</p>
<blockquote>
I consented and went to wood on the island of Nyakasenna. Found the native cotton called Tonje Cadja growing on it. It clings to the seed and, from its hard crisp feel in the hands, seems more like wool than cotton. The fibre is strong, curly and short. Tonje manga is the introduced variety and, as that same word is applied to maize, we learn in this etymology that maize is not an indigenous but an imported grain. Mapira is the name of the large millet or sorghum and Mapira manga of Maize (Foreign mapira).
</blockquote>
<p>For reasons that will become evident in a second, take note that the <i>tonje manga</i> that Livingstone found and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1799376">Kirk reported</a> was likely from India. And that <i>manga</i> specifically means something foreign arriving by sea and is named for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manga_Arabs">Manga Arabs</a> from Muscat, the name coming from Arabic <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0005%3Aentry%3DmanoqaE">مَنْقَعُ</a> 'pool of water' or, by extension, 'sea'.</p>
<p>Yoruba, Igbo, and Edo cognates <i>ọka</i> are from a common root for 'millet', but now additionally mean 'maize'. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diedrich_Hermann_Westermann">Westermann</a> identified a larger set of <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gxlYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA228#v=onepage"><i>-kà-</i></a> 'Rohrgras,Sorghum' for his 'West Sudanic' languages. His overall <i>Sudansprachen</i> 'Sudanic languages' form, I believe, the basis, more or less, of proto-Niger-Congo. “<a href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Ethnoscience/Plants/Crops/Cereals/Maize%20in%20Nigeria%201994.pdf">The Diffusion of Maize in Nigeria. A Historical and Linguistic Investigation</a>” listed out these and other terms to determine, in particular, the role of the Portuguese in its spread there.</p>
<p><i>ọka</i> is used to make <i>ẹkọ</i>, which Burton (in Yorubaland) <a href="https://archive.org/details/abeokutaandcama02burtgoog/page/n73/mode/1up">compared</a> to sowens. Lumpers, for whom grits and polenta are really the same thing, will probably want to include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugali">ugali</a>, if not <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.15444/page/n68/mode/1up"><i>angú</i> …, hasty-pudding and stirabout</a> (Burton in Brazil, explaining how it is made from <i>fubá</i>). Splitters who don't go all the way to distinguishing all the national varieties, but do need to call out the slightly fermented version, in search of an Englishing might go with <i>corn-pap</i>. This African sense does make it in the OED's <i>pap</i> noun2 1.b. Even though this is immediately informed by Africaans, Harriot had written of, “boyling the floure with water into a pappe.” Pap seems to be on the top of the flour packaging on Amazon with other names below.</p>
<p>While describing Savi in The Kingdom of Whydah (present day Benin), Burton includes a <a href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924086055724/page/n153/mode/2up">footnote</a> on the preparation of <i>akansan</i>, which is usually spelled <i>akasan</i>. Here is a <a href="https://twitter.com/koshersoul/status/1104857729984651265?">photo</a> from Michael W. Twitty, the <a href="https://afroculinaria.com">Kosher/Soul</a> culinary historian's, Twitter; note how a respondant from Nigeria recognizes is as more or less the same as eko.</p>
<p>I am not sure it is the most effective way to convey the decision tree, but this <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/cms/asset/18118808-9a96-45e7-8843-7a33932ea509/lfri_a_1588290_f0002_oc.jpg">chart</a> of “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2019.1588290">Sub-Saharan African Maize-Based Food-Processing Practices</a>” is pretty amazing.</p>
<p>An old LanguageHat <a href="https://languagehat.com/words-for-porridge-in-bantuphone-africa/">post</a> pointed to a <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/afriques/1575">paper</a> on Bantu porridge words, which pointed to another <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40341739">paper</a> on manioc noting a mid-17th century Dutch reference to maize flour in fufu. Wikipedia has a helpful note, thrown into a typically random paragraph in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fufu">fufu</a> article warning against Eastern and Southern Africans confusing it with their own ugali. And, as noted above, <i>milie</i>, Dutch <i>mille</i>, can be 'millet' or 'maize'. Still, in Dapper's <i>Naukeurige beschrijvinge der Afrikaensche gewesten van Egypten, …</i>, we find <a href="https://archive.org/details/gri_33125009359999/page/n503/mode/1up">first</a>, “<i>Mille</i>, <i>Mais</i> by d'Indianen geheten,” which seems unambiguous, and <a href="https://archive.org/details/gri_33125009359999/page/n713/mode/1up">then</a>, “Dan hunne gewoonlijke ſpijze is meeſt fondy of foufy, van meel van mille.” Even more strangely, the previous paragraph had noted, “Zy hebben groten overvloet van Banannas en Mandioque, of Farinhe-wortelen, welke twee gewaffen gen broot verſtrekken.” As though at that time they made bread from cassava flour but fufu from maize meal.</p>
<p>There is also debate about pre-Columbian dispersion of maize to Africa. Much of this that is easy to find online is the work of Mervyn David Waldegrave Jeffreys, an Oxford-educated colonial administrator who got a 1934 PhD in Anthropology from UCL while (on leave from?) working in Nigeria and who collected for the Wellcome Museum. He was prolific enough that someone published a <a href="https://worldcat.org/search?q=ti%3AMervyn+David+Waldegrave+Jeffreys+AND+au%3ADavid+Allan+Stone">bibliography with supplement</a>. Jeffrey's argument was refined over the years, but the essential part seems to be that Arabs brought maize to Africa before Europeans reached the New World. Linguistic evidence of that is of this sort:</p>
<ul>
<li><i>Guinea wheat</i> is not a standin for unknown foreign origin, or confusion with sorghum, but a sign of maize there before Europeans had been to America.</li>
<li>Portuguese <i>milho zaburro</i> is not a functional description (something like grain for fodder), and so liable to confusion between sorghum and maize, but always exactly the latter, so early references to it indicate that the Portuguese found maize in Africa (before they might have brought it there).</li>
<li><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hdPrWbB83CQC&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Manga+Mecca"><i>Manga</i> <b>=</b> <i>Mecca</i></a> “I now put forward the theory that Manga is the Bantuised form of either Mecca or Mocha, both old established Arab trading emporiums, established long before the days of Mohamet.”</li>
</ul>
<p>The <i>zaburro</i> confusion, if that is what it is, was already in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Ramusio">Ramusio</a>'s translation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Barros">Barros</a>'s <i>Asia</i>, <a href="https://archive.org/details/JoaoDeBarroDecadasDaAsiaDecadaI/page/n121/mode/2up">Primeira Decada</a> (<a href="https://digital-archives.sophia.ac.jp/laures-kirishitan-bunko/view/kirishitan_bunko/JL-1552-KB2-117-48?lang=en">1552 edition</a>, need to navigate to image number 38), where the translator <a href="https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/ramusio1554bd1/0936/image,info">adds</a> <i>mahiz</i> in one margin and an illustration in the other. Now elsewhere Ramusio adds <i>canna del mahiz</i> in the margin of a <a href="https://archive.org/details/primovolumequart00ramu/page/n429/mode/2up">translation</a> of the <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0540%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D57%3Asection%3D2">Iambulus fragment</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliotheca_historica#Book_II:_Asia"><i>Bibliotheca Historica</i></a> (C1 BCE). Burton makes a cameo appearance as translator of Francisco de Lacerda in Kazembe, giving, in a <a href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924081259271/page/n26/mode/1up">footnote</a> quoted by Jeffreys, maize as <i>milho burro</i> 'lesser millet' and sorghum as <i>milho grosso</i> 'greater millet'.</p>
<p>As for the prerequisite that Arabs might have reached America, one potential source is early Chinese accounts of Arab sailors in 木蘭皮 <i>Mùlán Pí</i>, which is usually taken as Morocco and Spain under the Almoravids المرابطون <i>Al-Murābiṭūn</i>. But about which the botanist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hui-lin_Li">Hui-lin Li</a> wrote a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718572">paper</a>, supposing, in particular, that descriptions of a large grain there referred to maize.</p>
<p>Jeffrey's non-linguistic evidence includes things like that there is a <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.233350/page/47/mode/1up">ntoro</a> that cannot eat maize on Tuesdays, which is taken to imply that it must have been known very long ago for such a taboo to have developed.</p>
<p>The Africanist <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/professor-frank-willett-410095.html">Frank Willett</a> (that is a link to an obituary; Wikipedia tellingly does not have an entry at all; Britannica has a one-sentence bio because he wrote their African Art article, but that's it) <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1157291">wrote</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
Jeffreys draws on all manner of evidence, with more industry than discretion, failing to bear in mind certain important considerations and using linguistic evidence in a way no philologist could approve.
</blockquote>
<p>(Backstory is a squabble in <i>Man</i>: <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2797128">W</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2798064">J</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2797903">W</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2796252">J</a>.)
<p>Another paper author at the 1962 <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/179762">Third Conference on African History and Archaeology</a>, where Willett presented the maize paper that contains that quote, was A. C. A. Wright, again a colonial career civil servant, who had written a 1949, “Maize Names as Indicators of Economic Contacts,” published in <a href="https://original-ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/UF00080855/00001/75j">The Uganda Journal</a>. (I have no idea why the UF Digital Collections have that journal, but fortunately they do. There is even a <a href="https://original-ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/UF00080855/00031/87j">follow-up</a> in that journal, by a Comboni Missionary, Fr. Carlo Muratori, giving Italian dialectical 'maize' forms.) He manages to cover a lot of the same territory without, that I can see, going beyond the bounds of generally accepted facts.</p>
<p>Once again, there is no escaping that this is politically delicate. <a href="https://archive.org/details/landlabourdietin0000rich/page/52/mode/1up?q=%22mealie+meal%22">Mealie-meal</a> was the staple of the mines and cities of colonial Southern Africa. Jeffreys briefly appears in the work of <a href="https://hss.sas.upenn.edu/people/henrika-kuklick">Henrika Kuklick</a>, the historian of anthropology. First in the paper “Contested Monuments” (in <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/2966587"><i>Colonial Situations</i></a>) on the tortured archeology of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</a> and Rhodesia's state policy to deny that it was the work of Bantu people centuries ago, putting Jeffrey's claims of foreign origin not only for material culture but even for vocabulary in that context. And then again in <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/2260072"><i>The Savage Within</i></a> on the survival of diffusionism at “the only university that tolerated unreconstructed diffusionists, the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg.” With footnote, “Jeffreys taught social anthropology, and seems to have been the only convinced diffusionist who was able to secure an academic appointment to do so.” Even from the diffusionist side, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Van_Sertima">Ivan Van Sertima</a>, the Guyanese author whose <i>They Came Before Columbus</i> aimed to show that Africans reached Central America before Columbus, <a href="https://archive.org/details/theycamebeforecolumbustheafricanpresenceinancientamericabyivanvansertima/page/n43/mode/2up">pointed out</a> that Jeffreys moved to South Africa later in life by choice, and concluded that he may have just assumed that someone brought maize to Africa, rather than that they went and got it.</p>
<p>This <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/217071">review</a> of Van Sertima takes a swipe at Jeffreys as a way of linking to our last African work, Leo Wiener's <i>Africa and the Discovery of America</i>, last encountered here in connection with <a href="/2008/02/peanut-continued.html">peanuts</a>. Recall that his shtick is to mine word lists, find patterns, and construct significant historical revisions based on them. About eight pages of the Tobacco chapter are devoted to <a href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924088419803/page/n149/mode/2up">maize</a>. However, as I read it, there is no challenge to the American origin of maize the plant / grain; even the basic outline of the history of its spread is accepted. Rather, it is the history of the word <i>maize</i> itself that gets revising. It is not a native word from a Caribbean language. Instead, the source is the word <i>mazorca</i>, conventionally explained as Iberian Arabic <i>maṣúrqa</i> formed from ماسُورة <i>māsūrah</i> plus a Latinate <i>-icus</i> suffix, and used to describe pipes used as bobbins, and which the Spaniards used to describe corn-cobs, by analogy with somewhat similar ears of sorghum they knew from Africa and the Portuguese <i>maçaroca</i>. Evidence of this Wiener also sees in various African <a href="https://digitalisate.sub.uni-hamburg.de/recherche/detail?tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=28686&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=152&cHash=136e0f3204caccc0815d919ded0ba6fb">words</a> for these grains. The Bambara <i>maka</i> is taken to be an Arabicized form, which went from Africa to India, accounting for <i>makka</i> there. Note that Jeffreys (see above) had conversely taken the same to indicate that Arabs had brought maize to Africa before Columbus, naming it after Mecca.</p>
<p>There is also debate of long standing around the arrival of maize in East Asia. De Candolle (cited here regularly) begins his <a href="https://archive.org/details/originedesplant02candgoog/page/n323/mode/2up">discussion</a> of it (<a href="https://archive.org/details/originofcultivat00candrich/page/386/mode/2up">translation</a>) by quoting his <a href="https://archive.org/details/gographiebotaniq02cand/page/942/mode/2up">earlier work</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
Le Maïs est originaire d'Amérique et n'a été introduit dans l'ancien monde que depuis la découverte du nouveau. Je regarde ces deux assertions comme positives, malgré l'opinion contraire de quelques auteurs et le doute émis par le célèbre agronome Bonafous, auquel nous devons le traité le plus complet sur le Maïs.
<br/>
Maize is of American origin, and has only been introduced into the old world since the discovery of the new. I consider these two assertions as positive, in spite of the contrary opinion of some authors, and the doubts of the celebrated agriculturist Bonafous, to whom we are indebted for the most complete treatise upon maize.
</blockquote>
<p>And, indeed, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthieu_Bonafous">Matthieu Bonafous</a>'s 1833 <a href="https://archive.org/details/traitdumasouhis00bonagoog/page/n16/mode/2up"><i>Traité du maïs</i></a> does claim early arrivals throughout Asia. The specific evidence given includes:</p>
<ul>
<li>A 13th century “Charter of Incisa,” documenting a grain called <i>meliga</i>.</li>
<li>Maize found in an Ancient Egyptian tomb by <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rifaud">Rifaud</a> in 1819.</li>
<li>Entries in 16th century Chinese materia medica.</li>
</ul>
<p>De Candolle refutes these in turn. The 1204 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquisate_of_Incisa">Incisa</a> document, published by <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lL8vAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA198">Molinari in 1810</a>, records that two returning crusaders gave the town a piece of the True Cross and some <i>semine, seu granis de colore aureo, et partim albo</i> 'seed or grain of gold color, also partly white' from around Constantinople named <i>meliga</i>. Bonafous admits that this might be sorghum. But that turns out not to be necessary, since in 1877 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Riant">Comte Riant</a>, in the ironically titled, “Chartre du Maïs,” <a href="https://archive.org/details/revuedesquestio16unkngoog/page/156/mode/2up">showed</a> that the whole thing was a forgery.</p>
<p>De Candolle assumes that the Egyptian maize was put there by one of the modern workers. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien-Joseph_Virey">Virey</a> goes to the trouble of <a href="https://archive.org/details/journaldepharma99parigoog/page/572/mode/2up">supposing</a> that it might be sorghum. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Braun">Braun</a> also <a href="https://archive.org/details/zeitschriftfuret9187berl/page/n305/mode/1up">went with</a> a deception by the locals. I am actually not sure where Rifaud reported that he found maize. The citation given by Bonafours in the <a href="https://archive.org/details/traitdumasouhis00bonagoog/">1833 edition</a>, digitized by Google is, “J.-J. Rifaud. Voyage en Egypte, en Nubie et lieux circonvoisins, depuis 1805 jusque'en 1827, avec 200 planches. Paris. 1834.” But that is the work Rifaud <em>hoped</em> to publish (<a href="https://archive.org/details/voyageenegyp00rifa">prospectus</a>); he wasn't able to get enough subscribers. The <a href="https://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/idurl/1/14395">1836 edition</a>, digitized by the Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid, ends instead with “Paris, 1855, planches 97 et 138.” Now, those plates, which in the end were all that was published, have been digitized by the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle: <a href="https://bibliotheques.mnhn.fr/medias/doc/EXPLOITATION/IFD/MNHN_EST_VOY_0013_0030/pl-97-couvert-d-un-sarcophage-en-basalte-decouvert-a-thebes-par-l-auteur-leroux-d-apres-les-dessins-">pl 97</a> <a href="https://bibliotheques.mnhn.fr/medias/doc/EXPLOITATION/IFD/MNHN_EST_VOY_0013_0044/pl-138-coupe-d-un-hypogee-de-gournac-thebes-pour-indiquer-la-maniere-dont-l-auteur-a-enleve-les-sarc">pl 138</a>. They only show the sarcophagus and an elevation of the tomb site. There isn't any real text. My guess is that Rifaud announced his find in some more ephemeral form, perhaps in some journal, or even the manuscript. Everyone since has just copied Bonafous's citation. In the process of looking for something more definite, I did find an <a href="https://archive.org/details/tableaudelgypte01rifagoog/page/n182/mode/1up">anecdote</a> of Rifaud littering into a maizefield, so that the farmer thought he was putting some written spell on the crop. Also he vandalized the sites with <a href="https://archive.griffith.ox.ac.uk/uploads/r/null/a/1/9/a1999b97de22403e76d71683e9dc398c53a01d4a8b58bd18e302c0df3547952f/01_Travellers__Graffiti_Vol_I_-__The_Kiosk_of_Qertassi.pdf">grafitti</a>.</p>
<p>Ancient Egypt is a magnet for those promoting new historical theories. So, <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/15716790"><i>Ancient Egyptian Maize</i></a> by Gunnar Thompson, which presents both textual evidence and many illustrations of ancient artwork (slightly redrawn from published copies), clarifying that various unidentified plants, such as the one in the lower-left of Carter's <a href="https://society6.com/product/thutmose-i-and-queen-senseneb-by-howard-carter2748668_print">mural for the Egypt Exploration Society</a> are maize. The lexicographical side is mostly just the usual name lists with proposed connections.A <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lXAiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83&lpg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=false">page</a> with the proposed hierglyphic words seems to misread its <a href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924073870507/page/n81/mode/2up">source</a>. That latter says that “common words for corn flour” (meaning any kind of grain) are <a href="https://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/servlet/GetWcnDetails?u=guest&f=0&l=0&wn=90900&db=0"><i>nḏ</i></a> and <a href="https://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/servlet/GetWcnDetails?u=guest&f=0&l=0&wn=146730&db=0"><i>sḥj</i></a>. And that specific kinds are gotten by appending <a href="https://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/servlet/GetWcnDetails?u=guest&f=0&l=0&wn=129590&db=0"><i>swt</i></a> 'wheat' and <a href="https://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/servlet/GetWcnDetails?u=guest&f=0&l=0&wn=32830&db=0"><i>jt</i></a> 'barley'. The slightly different words drawn by Thompson do look compatible with this, though it is not clear exactly where they come from.</p>
<ol>
<li>corn 𓋴𓎞𓏬𓈖𓌾</li>
<li>wheat 𓋴𓎞𓏬𓈖𓋴𓅱</li>
<li>barley 𓐩𓏌𓌾𓋴𓎞𓏬</li>
</ol>
<p>The book's scope is not limited to the Near East. For example, there is a section on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosslyn_Chapel#Carvings">Rosslyn Chapel</a> and the mid-15th century maybe-maize carvings there. (The chapel's <a href="https://www.rosslynchapel.com/visit/things-to-do/identify-the-plant-carvings/">own site</a> even gets in on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_I_Sinclair,_Earl_of_Orkney">Sir Henry</a> “may have travelled there long before Columbus” act.) As sometimes happens, the author is so invested in their revised history that not only are they derisive toward the traditional experts, but they even seem to develop a personal animus toward popularizers for relying on those experts and not doing their own research. The popular account in this case being Betty Fussell's <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/147682"><i>The Story of Corn</i></a>.</p>
<p>Bonafous and Rifaud were noticed by exegetical works. So, in Fairbairn's 1866 <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ZMECAAAAQAAJ/page/361/mode/1up"><i>Imperial Bible-Dictionary</i></a>, s.v. <i>Corn</i>, is an entry written by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hamilton_(minister,_born_1814)">James Hamilton</a> and illustrated by a maize plant. If it was known to the Egyptians, it would have been in Palestine, and it is not impossible that classical <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dzeia%2F">ζειά</a>, the source of Linnaeus's name for maize, included it. Smith's 1868 <a href="https://archive.org/details/comprehensivedic00smitrich/page/190/mode/1up"><i>Comprehensive Dictionary</i></a> only mentions Rifaud, giving Hamilton as authority, that it might have been known to the Hebrews. But it then wonders whether Rifaud's grains might not have gotten there, “by accident or design, at some time within the last three or four centuries?” There is no sign of this discussion in Smith's 1863 three volume <a href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofbibl1863smit/page/357/mode/1up"><i>Dictionary</i></a> or the 1871 four volume <a href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofwil01smit/page/498/mode/1up">update</a> in entries written by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Hayman_(educationist)">Henry Hayman</a> (right around the time of the Rugby controversy); these works have Hebrew fonts and are in many ways unrelated. McClintock and Strong's 1882 <a href="https://archive.org/details/cyclopediaofbibl0002john/page/515/mode/1up"><i>Cyclopædia</i></a> looks to be a shortened version of Hamilton's entry. For all these, as with the Tribes of Israel, the driving idea is that the theology might be tidier if everything was known in the Bible, or at least to the older pagans. The importance here is that these Biblical reference works have been continuously reprinted since and are now transcribed online, making them a potential modern propagator of these unorthodox theories.</p>
<p>In 1906, Berthold Laufer, referenced here before as an expert on the introduction of foreign foods to China, wrote a monograph, on “<a href="https://archive.org/details/congrsinternati29unkngoog/page/n295/mode/2up">The Introduction of Maize into Eastern Asia</a>.” His proposal is that within a generation of discovery, it had been brought by the Portuguese to India, and from there through Tibet to China, where by the second generation, so within fifty to seventy-five years of Columbus, is was established. Which is fast enough to account for all the available evidence. He argues against direct introduction by Europeans, in part based on the differences in how maize and potatoes (or tobacco) are perceived. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ping-ti_Ho">Ping-Ti Ho</a>'s 1955 “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/666391">The Introduction of American Food Plants into China</a>” questions some of this, specifically that maize was produced in large quantities as early as the late 16th century, proposing both overland and maritime routes.</p>
<p>The maize section in Francesca Bray's 1984 <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/2125228"><i>Agriculture</i></a> volume of Needham's <i>Science and Civilisation in China</i>, (e) (2) (iii), begins by quoting (the English translation of) de Candolle. It does not present any novel arguments, but summarizes what we might call the accepted history. In 2004, Johannessen (see above for India) and Sorenson published a paper on “<a href="https://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp133_precolumbian_voyages.pdf">Scientific Evidence for Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyages</a>,” as part of the <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i> series, edited by Language Log's Victor Mair. It summarizes most of the revised arguments. That same yesr, Anne E. Desjardins, a USDA research biochemist, put together a web site on <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041030232307/http://www.nal.usda.gov/research/maize/introduction.shtml">Milho, Makka, and Yu Mai: Early Journeys of Zea Mays to Asia</a>, with the help of the National Agricultural Library's librarian. (That link is to the Wayback Machine, as the original links are all dead. The closest thing remaining on the NAL site are some maize-centered Zoom videos from 2022. It is also possible to get a PDF snapshot of the site <a href="https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/335406">here</a>.) Although the authors mostly limit themselves to English (with occasional French) sources, everything is properly footnoted. In terms of content, we might again call it all accepted history. Dr. Desjardins, like Prof. Mair, was a Peace Corps volunteer in Nepal. (Ethnographic art and textiles in particular are another area of interest here; many dealers and collectors in those at the end of the last century and beginning of this one were Peace Corps alumni/ae of that generation.) The site was promoted on a Peace Corp <a href="http://peacecorpsonline.org/messages/messages/467/2020111.html">message board</a>.</p>
<p>Ho had concluded,</p>
<blockquote>
… that, barring a sensational discovery in Chinese sources clearly indicating a pre-Columbian introduction, Chinese maize as a topic for speculation should be closed.
</blockquote>
<p>In 2005, in “<a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/yakushi/125/7/125_7_583/_article">Maize in Pre-Columbian China</a>,” Uchibayashi claimed to have made that discovery, in the form of the 1505 本草品彙精要 <i>Bencao Pinhui Jingyao</i> 'Classified Materia Medica', where the 薏苡仁 <i>yiyi-ren</i> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job%27s_tears">Job's tears</a> entry has an illustration that looks more like maize. (Note 6 accidentally has 苡薏仁.)</p>
<p>Besides the herbals, the physical evidence for early arrival is mostly odd varieties of maize itself, particularly waxy / glutinous ones. But, it has been pointed out that it shouldn't be surprising that a culture mostly dependent on rice would favor these in its cultivation. And that they are similar to some in Brazil, and so might have initially arrived from there to India or Burma. For instance, Collins 1909 <a href="https://archive.org/details/newtypeofindianc161coll/page/n1/mode/2up"><i>A new type of Indian corn from China</i></a>. Or Stonor and Anderson 1949 “<a href="https://archive.org/details/biostor-11738">Maize Among the Hill Peoples of Assam</a>”, addressed specifically by Mangelsdorf and Oliver 1951 “<a href="https://archive.org/details/biostor-160773">Whence Came Maize To Asia?</a>”, which concludes that no major revision of needed. I am not sure whether botany is more resistant to creative reinterpreation than philology.</p>
<p>As for 本草綱目 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bencao_Gangmu"><i>Bencao Gangmu</i></a>, completed in 1578 and published in 1596, and its 玉蜀黍 <i>yù shǔshǔ</i> entry (<a href="https://www.loc.gov/resource/lcnclscd.2012402613.1A002/?sp=24&st=image">illustration</a> <a href="https://www.loc.gov/resource/lcnclscd.2012402613.1B023/?sp=8&st=image">text</a>): Bonafouns used that illustration as the <a href="https://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/viewer/14395/?offset=#page=11&viewer=picture&o=bookmark&n=0&q=">frontispiece</a> for the first chapter of the later edition of his Maize work. And Weatherwax too as an <a href="https://archive.org/details/storyofmaizeplan00weat/page/18/mode/2up">illustration</a> in his <i>The Story of Maize Plant</i> (though there is some confusion around in which order to read the characters). Note that the <a href="https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&chapter=338#%E7%A9%80%E4%B9%8B%E4%BA%8C%EF%BC%88%E7%A8%B7%E7%B2%9F%E9%A1%9E%E4%B8%80%E5%8D%81%E5%85%AB%E7%A8%AE%EF%BC%89%E7%8E%89%E8%9C%80%E9%BB%8D">text</a> itself somewhat weakens the argument, saying,</p>
<blockquote>
玉蜀黍種出西土,種者亦罕。
<br/>
<i>Yùshǔshǔ zhǒng chū xītǔ, zhǒng zhě yì hǎn</i>
<br/>
Maize, originating from Western lands, is rarely grown.
</blockquote>
<p>In the end, words for 'maize' in various Sinitic topolects (at various times) are not of an inherently different pattern than elsewhere or otherwise suggestive of anything other than recent introduction.</p>
<ul>
<li>番麥 <i>fan1 mai4</i> Hokkien <i>hoan beh8</i> 'foreign wheat'</li>
<li>御麥 <i>yu4 mai4</i> 'imperial (tribute) wheat'</li>
<li>玉麥 <i>yu4 mai4</i> 'jade wheat'</li>
<li>玉蜀黍 <i>yu4 shu3 shu3</i> 'jade sorghum'</li>
<li>玉高粱 <i>yu4 gao1 liang2</i> 'jade sorghum'</li>
<li>玉米 <i>yu4 mi3</i> 'jade rice'</li>
<li>粟米 Cantonese <i>suk1 mai5</i> 'millet rice'</li>
<li>包粟 Hakka <i>bau1 siuk</i> 'sheath millet'</li>
<li>包穀 <i>bao1 gu3</i>, Hunanese <i>bau1 gu6</i> ‘sheath grain’</li>
<li>珍珠米 Shanghainese <i>tsen tsy mi</i> 'pearl millet'</li>
<li>油甜苞 Fuzhounese <i>iù diĕng báu</i> 'oil sweet plant'</li>
<li>粟米 <i>su4 mi3</i> 'millet rice'</li>
<li>包兒米 <i>bao1 er2 mi3</i> 'sheath rice'</li>
<li>西番麥 <i>xi1 fan1 mai4</i> 'Western barbarian (Tibetan) wheat'</li>
<li>戎菽 <i>rong2 shu1</i> 'Western barbarian (Rong) pulse'</li>
</ul>
<p>And likewise</p>
<ul>
<li>Korean 옥수수 <i>oksusu</i> is 玉蜀黍 'jade sorghum' with a native name for jade.</li>
<li>Japanese トウモロコシ <i>tōmorokoshi</i> = 'Tang sorghum'.</li>
<li>Burmese ပြောင်းဖူး <i>praun42 bu42</i> 'sorghum gourd'.</li>
</ul>
<p><i>Chinese Materia Medica</i>, Vegetable Kingdom, (1911) by Dr. George Arthur Stuart, a medical missionary to China, s.v. <a href="https://archive.org/details/chinesemateriame00stuauoft/page/464/mode/2up"><i>Zea Mays</i></a>, adds some ordinal terms, 八路 <i>bālù</i> 'eighth path' and 六粟 <i>liù sù</i> 'sixth grain'. This is a revision of <i>Contributions Towards the Materia Medica and Natural History of China</i> (1871) by Dr. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Porter_Smith">Frederick Porter Smith</a>, another medical missionary, a combination of translations of parts of <i>Bencao Gangmu</i> with the doctor's own observations. That latter's <a href="https://archive.org/details/contributionsto00smitgoog/page/n151/mode/2up">entry</a> is more discursive, including the suggestion that maize was probably introduced from Japan, where it has the name 南蠻黍 <i>nan-ban-kibi</i> 'Southern barbarian millet'; this based on a multi-part discussion in <i>Notes and Queries on China and Japan</i> for 1867. Note that although Dr. Smith says Mr. Mayers comments were in No. 6, where there are indeed comments by others, his are, in fact, in <a href="https://archive.org/details/notesandqueries00unkngoog/page/n108/mode/2up">No. 7</a>, and include the same 玉蜀黍 illustration. The discussion there also takes up the possibility of maize being indigenous, but the concludes not. (As noted here before, <i>Notes and Queries</i> is the Victorian group blog; this variant added “missionaries and residents in the East generally” to its intended audience.)</p>
<p>In the infamous “Terminal Essay,” Burton <a href="https://archive.org/details/plainliteraltran10burt/page/91/mode/1up">acknowledged</a> these controveries:</p>
<blockquote>
It has been suggested that Japanese tobacco is an indigenous growth and sundry modern travellers in China contend that the potato and the maize, both white and yellow, have there been cultivated from time immemorial.
</blockquote>
<p>Nor was he above himself hedging his bets on <a href="https://archive.org/details/togoldcoastforgo01burt/page/62/mode/1up">maize etymology</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
The word is of doubtful origin, generally derived from the Haytian <i>mahiz</i>. But in northern Europe <i>mayse</i> (Irish <i>maise</i>) bread, and the Old High German <i>maz</i> (Hind. <i>mans</i>) means meat
</blockquote>
<p><i>mayse</i> is a Prussian word for bread, cognate with Latvian <i>màize</i>. See <b>1.12</b> in <a href="https://www.academia.edu/38384844/IEbarley_Copenhagen2012_2017_pdf">Blažek</a> (IE barley; cited above), which ultimately links this to a <a href="https://indogermanisch.org/pokorny-etymologisches-woerterbuch/mei%C4%9Dh.htm">root</a> meaning 'urinate'. I am not sure what is meant for the Irish, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mais#Irish">mais</a> is just 'mass', which does come from Greek <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=ma=za">μᾶζα</a> 'barley-cake', from a <a href="https://indogermanisch.org/pokorny-etymologisches-woerterbuch/ma%C4%9D.htm">*meh₂ǵ root</a> meaning 'knead'. OHG <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/maz#Old_High_German"><i>maz</i></a> is indeed 'meat' in the sense of food in general.</p>
<p><b>Postscript</b>: It is possible that someone will have noticed that, other than some gems pulled from the embers of 𝕏, most of the secondary sources in these recent posts are a decade or more old. Indeed, much of the material sat in the local file system waiting to get put into shape. The lingering pandemic has afforded an opportunity to do that. I do not think much has changed in this history, though I welcome additions. Even the program of government-mandated ignorance for American schoolchildren in certain areas, which might revert the opening premise, may not succeed. There are, naturally, new and expanded online resources, which cleared up some loose ends. Although copyright of obsolete but recent works remains a mess. Overall, I think there was a greater relevant difference between the time of the earliest post here and the last one before the hiatus than between then and these new ones. For instance, Unicode support for hieroglyphs or emoji. 🌽</p>
MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-2296140910509920182023-11-02T19:48:00.007-05:002023-11-05T13:06:12.082-05:00Maize 1<p>In <i>The City of Saints</i>, Sir Richard Francis Burton does for Salt Lake City / Mormons / the American West what he did for Mecca / Muslims / the Arabian Peninsula. One of his many <a href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924028916984/page/110/mode/2up">asides</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
It has long been disputed whether maize was indigenous to America or to Asia; learned names are found on both sides of the question. In Central Africa the cereal is now called as in English, “Indian corn,” proving that in that continent it first was introduced from Hindostan. The Italians have named it Gran' Turco, showing whence it was imported by them. The word maiz, mays, maize, or mahiz, is a Carib word introduced by the Spaniards into Europe; in the United States, where “corn” is universally used, maize is intelligible only to the educated.
</blockquote>
<p>I think the last may only still be true in a reductive sense, as universal primary education (while it lasts), to say nothing of global communication, means almost everyone has learned <i>maize</i>.</p>
<p><i>Indian corn</i> is a prototypical term for maize. An existing word for a common grain — and <i>corn</i> historically means the prevalent <em>local</em> grain — plus some geographical qualification that might suggest where it originates / arrived from. Made extra confusing by West versus East Indies, already confused on the way from Sanskrit सिन्धु 'river' via Old Persian 𐏃𐎡𐎯𐎢𐏁 <i>Hindush</i> and Herodotus's Ἰνδός. Typical too is shortening <i>Indian corn</i> to just <i>corn</i> after a while.</p>
<p>As well as how many twenty-first century Americans recognize “maize,” one might also wonder what “corn” is to other English speakers in a globalized world without well-defined local default grains. I would not be surprised if to some it is, “an American word for <i>maize</i>.” Or, lacking context, that one would react like George III to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hutchinson_(governor)">Thomas Hutchinson</a>, as the latter recalled in his <a href="https://archive.org/details/diarylettersofhi01hutcuoft/page/171/mode/1up"></i>Diary</i></a> for July 1st, 1774:</p>
<blockquote>
H.— … coarse bread made of rye and corn …
<br/>
K.— What corn?
<br/>
H.— Indian corn, or, as it is called in Authors, Maize.
</blockquote>
<p>A footnote says that Hutchinson mused on the diary's flyleaf whether the word <i>maize</i> was in use in Europe before the discovery of America. As others had and others would.</p>
<p>Gerard's <i>Herball</i> has an entry for Turkie corne / Turky wheat, with names <i>Frumentum Turcitum</i> / <i>Milium Indicum</i>, <i>Maiz</i> / <i>Pagatowr</i>. The part of the <a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/109874#page/97/mode/1up">1597 edition</a> that says,</p>
<blockquote>
Theſe kinds of Graine were firſt brought into Spaine, and then into other prouinces of Europe, out of Aſia which is in the Turkes Dominions, as alſo out of America and the Iſlands adioyning from the eaſt and weſt Indies, and Virginia or Norembega
</blockquote>
<p>is corrected in the <a href="https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbc0001.2011bit28884/?sp=129&st=image">1636 edition</a> to,</p>
<blockquote>
Theſe kinds of grain were firſt brought into Spaine, and then into other prouinces of Europe: not (aſ ſome ſuppoſe) out of Aſia <i>minor</i>, which is in the Turks dominions; but out of America and the Iſlanda adioining, aſ out of Florida, and Virginia or Norembega
</blockquote>
<p>A New World origin is generally considered definitively settled by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine-Augustin_Parmentier">Parmentier</a>, who is best known for <a href="https://archive.org/details/recherchessurles00parm/page/n3/mode/2up">promoting</a> <a href="https://archive.org/details/b28767329/page/n3/mode/2up">potatoes</a> as a substitute for flour in France in the 1780s, but who also proposed cornmeal for that. He there <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_7NvBBcR0amwC/page/n19/mode/2up">concluded</a>,</p>
<blockquote>
C'eſt aſſez inſiſter ſur l'origine du Maïs; il n'eſt plus permit de douter que cette plante ne ſoit une production indigène du Continent, ainſi que des Iles de l'Amérique; & que c'eſt de ce nouvel hémiſphère qu'il a été tranſporté dan les autres parties de l'Univers.
</blockquote>
<p>He reinforced this in his entry in the <i>Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle</i>, s.v. <a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/18052971"><i>Mais</i></a>, pointing out that there is no mention anywhere by anyone before the Spanish.</p>
<p>Somewhat anticipating Mencken, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Eggleston">Edward Eggleston</a> wrote a humorous piece, “Wild Flowers of English Speech in America,” for <i>The Century Magazine</i> of April, 1894. It has a <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_century-illustrated-monthly-magazine_1894-04_47_6/page/849/mode/1up">couple paragraphs</a> on maize:</p>
<ul>
<li>“To this day we do not say maize; our illiterate people have never heard it..”</li>
<li>Henry Hudson called it “Turkish wheat.”</li>
<li>French <i>blé de Turquie</i> 'Turkey wheat' and <i>blé d'Inde</i> 'wheat from India'.</li>
<li>Italian <i>gran turco</i> 'Turkish grain' and <i>gran saracenico</i> 'Saracen grain'.</li>
<li>German (including from Pennsylvania) <i>Türkisch korn</i>.</li>
<li>”corn,“ short for ”Indian corn,“ so “English corn” for other cereals.</li>
<li>Clayton, the botanist, called it ”Virginia wheat.“</li>
<li>New Englanders shorten the other way to just ”Indian.“</li>
<li>Governor Winthrop wrote ”Indean.“</li>
<li>Connecticut waitress offering a newcomer ”Fried Indian.“</li>
</ul>
<p>I believe that <a href="https://archive.org/details/henryhudsonabri00janvgoog/page/n52/mode/2up">Henry Hudson</a>'s encounter with maize was on his third voyage, in September 1609, aboard the VOC's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halve_Maen"><i>Halve Maen</i></a> 'Half Moon'. His journal for that trip is lost, <a href="https://archive.org/details/finalreportofjoh00brod/page/8/mode/2up">perhaps</a> sold at the 1821 auction of <em>all</em> the Company records before 1700. When he first returned to England, he consulted with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emanuel_van_Meteren">van Meteren</a>, who included just a brief summary in the 1611 edition of <i>Belgische ofte Nederlantsche oorlogen ende gheschiedenissen</i>, getting no closer to maize <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oYLonpN_Uw0C&pg=SL4791-PA346-IA1#v=onepage&q=%22witte%20ende%20roode%22&f=false">than</a>, “Vꝛuchten, ſelve Wijndꝛuyven / witte ende roode” 'fruit; even white and red grapes' (tr. <a href="https://archive.org/details/henryhudsonnavig27ashe/page/150/mode/2up">Asher</a>; somehow 'blue' <a href="https://archive.org/details/historicalsouven00unse/page/14/mode/2up">here</a>; I can't find anything other than 'red', even in the <a href="https://archive.org/details/bim_eighteenth-century_a-collection-of-voyages-_renneville-constantin-d_1703/page/68/mode/2up">prior Englishing</a> that does invert the order). Hudson was detained by the British authorities, along with the English crewmen; the journal (presumably, per his contract) sailed on to Holland with the remainder Dutch crew. Some extracts were published in 1625 in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joannes_de_Laet">de Laet</a>'s <i>Nieuwe Wereldt</i>, <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t02z14d0g?urlappend=%3Bseq=120">including</a>, “haer eten is Turcxſe tarwe / daer ſy koecken van backen / ende is goet eeten;” 'Their food is Turkish wheat, which they cook by baking, and it is excellent eating' (tr. <a href="https://archive.org/details/henryhudsonnavig27ashe/page/160/mode/2up">Asher</a>) and “was overvloedich van <i>Maiz</i> ende Boonen vant vooꝛ-gaende jaer” 'There was plenty of maize and beans from the previous year'. These mostly align with the journal of Robert Juet, one of Hudson's officers, also published in 1625: for <a href="https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbdk&fileName=d0403//rbdkd0403.db&recNum=634&itemLink=r%3Fintldl%2Frbdkbib%3A%40field%28NUMBER%2B%40od1%28rbdk%2Bd0403%29%29&linkText=0">Sept 4th, 1609</a>, “They haue great ſtore of Maiz or <i>Indian</i> Wheate, whereof they make good Bread.” and for <a href="https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbdk&fileName=d0403//rbdkd0403.db&recNum=635&itemLink=r%3Fintldl%2Frbdkbib%3A%40field%28NUMBER%2B%40od1%28rbdk%2Bd0403%29%29&linkText=0">Sept 16th</a>, “ears of <i>Indian</i> Corne” (Purchas adding Maiz in the margin). In negotiating the contract, Hudson had help from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jodocus_Hondius">Hondius</a>, which seems to confirm that he was not fluent in Dutch. “Turkish wheat” is certainly not unknown in English, but it I think could also be that Hudson actually wrote some more common name, as Juet did, and the translator turned it into a more common Dutch one.</p>
<p><i>Finnegans Wake</i> realized that capitalization turns <i>gran turco</i> 'Turkish grain' = maize into <i>Gran Turco</i> 'great Turk' = Sultan, like Mehmet II. The <a href="https://www.finnegansweb.com/wiki/index.php/Page_132">first riddle in chapter 6</a>, with its list of hundreds of punning attributes for the Father / HCE / Finn MacCool, includes vegetables, “a Colossus among cabbages,” fruits, “Melarancitrone,” and <a href="http://fweet.org/cgi-bin/fw_grep.cgi?srch=turco&icase=1&accent=1&tscope=1&whole=1">grains</a>: maize, barley, wheat, and bulgur.</p>
<p><a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/clayton-john-1656-or-1657-1725/">John Clayton</a> had a day job as a clergyman. He wrote a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/102018">letter</a> to the Royal Society, noting “<i>Engliſh</i> Wheat (as they call it, to diſtinguish it from <i>Maze</i>, commonly called <i>Virginia</i> Wheat).” John Winthrop definitely spelled it <i>Indean</i>, but I haven't found where he uses this as short for Indian corn. The Younger Winthrop also wrote a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/101828">letter</a> to the Royal Society, dealing exclusively with maize.</p>
<p>A Pennsylvanian German who wrote <i>Türkisch Korn</i> to his friends back home was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Daniel_Pastorius">Francis Daniel Pastorius</a>. For instance, <a href="https://archive.org/details/umstndigegeogr00past/page/79/mode/1up">here</a> (<a href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924074466552/page/434/mode/2up">translation</a>). Interestingly enough, that translation also has him <a href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924074466552/page/405/mode/1up">writing</a>, “Indian (or as you call it, Turkish) corn.” This part of the translation is taken from a different German edition of his letters, of which the only known copy was in an unspecified library in Zurich and is now lost. (This turns out to be specifically interesting for the history of early Pennsylvania abolitionism.) Pennsylvania Dutch (that is, German) has <i>Welschkann</i>, corresponding to the regional <i>Welschkorn</i> (<a href="https://www.woerterbuchnetz.de/DWB?lemid=W05170"><i>Wälschkorn</i></a> in Grimm), Welsh standing for 'foreign'. <i>Welschen Korn ode Türkisch korn</i> is how it appears in Hieronymus Bock's <i>New Kreuterbuch</i> <a href="https://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-12611-p0276-1">herbal</a>, the entry beginning with:</p>
<blockquote>
Unſer Germania würt bald Felix Arabia heiſſen/ dieweil wir ſo vil frembder gewächß von tag zů tag/ auß frembden Landen in vnſeren grund gewenen/ vnder welchẽ das gꝛoß Welsch koꝛn nicht das geringeſt/ on zweiffel erſtmals von Kauffleütten auß warmẽ feyßten landen zů vns gefürt woꝛden/
<br/>
Our Germany will soon be called <i>felix Arabia</i>, because we accustom so many foreign plants to our soil from day to day, among which the large <i>wälsch-korn</i> is not the least important. (tr. <a href="https://archive.org/details/b2178128x/page/384/mode/2up">Stallybrass</a>)
</blockquote>
<p>A few years later, Eggleston put many of these same observations into his book, <i>The Transit of Civilization From England to America</i> with a chapter on language containing a <a href="https://archive.org/details/transitofciviliz00eggluoft/page/102/mode/2up">couple of sections</a> on maize. This time with proper references in the margins. And the cannibal joke has become a peeve against vernacular. It also adds <i>Gynneye [Guinea] wheat</i> to the English names from a 1585 <a href="https://archive.org/details/colonialrecordsc01greauoft/page/4/mode/1up">report from Virginia</a>, “… that yields both corn and sugar”). This same also occurs in a 1598 Italian-English dictionary, <i>A Worlde of Wordes</i>, s.v. <a href="https://archive.org/details/worldeofwordesor00flor/page/48/mode/1up"><i>brena</i></a> (I am not sure what this is): “a kinde of ginnie or turkie wheate.” Note that <i>Guinea corn</i> is (at least usually) 'sorghum'.</p>
<p>Also in 1585, Thomas Harriot's <i>A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia</i> <a href="https://archive.org/details/briefetruereport00harr/page/13/mode/1up">begins the section on native foods</a> with a good summary of the names:</p>
<blockquote>
Pagatowr, a kinde of graine ſo called by the inhabitants; the ſame in the Weſt Indies is called Mayze: English men call it Guinney wheate or Turkie wheate, according to the names of the countreys from whence the like hath beene brought.
</blockquote>
<p>Followed by a description of varieties and uses.</p>
<p>In “Pongo-land,” (Gabon; this might count as “<i>South</i>-Guinea” in Jean Barbot's <i>A Description of the Coasts of North and South-Guinea, and of Ethiopia Inferior, vulgarly Angola</i> — see his <a href="https://archive.org/details/descriptionofcoa00barb/page/4/mode/2up">introduction</a>), Burton <a href="https://archive.org/details/twotripstogorill11876burt/page/157/mode/1up">found</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
Maize (<i>Zea mays</i>) has become common, and the people enjoy “bútás,” or roasted ears. Barbot says that the soil is unfit for corn and Indian wheat; it is so for the former, certainly not for the latter.
</blockquote>
<p>Apparently, in Mpongwe <i>buta</i> is 'seek' and 'maize' is <i>mba</i>. I may be overlooking another nearby alternative, but, otherwise, I suspect that by <i>bútás</i> he means to refer to Bhutta Masala, roasted corn on the cob in India; more on this later. I assume <i>corn</i> is 'wheat', though strange next to “Indian wheat,” in turn following “maize.” If “that kind of cereal which is the leading crop of the district” (NED) were followed scrupulously, then I think <i>corn</i> here might well be 'millet'. But he is just echoing Barbot, who <a href="https://archive.org/details/descriptionofcoa00barb/page/392/mode/1up">wrote</a>, “nor is there any corn or <i>Indian</i> wheat, at leaſt that I can ſee,” but who is <a href="https://archive.org/details/descriptionofcoa00barb/page/30/mode/1up">elsewhere</a> more clear with “<i>Maiz</i> or <i>Indian</i> wheat, and millet, …; our <i>European</i> corn ….”</p>
<p>The first written use of <i>maize</i> in English appears to be Roger Barlow's 1544 <i>A Brief Summe of Geographie</i>, translating
Martín Fernández de Enciso's <i>Suma de Geographia</i>. (<a href="https://archive.org/details/sumadegeographia00enci_0/page/n148/mode/1up">original</a> <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.00999/page/173/mode/1up">translation</a>)</p>
<blockquote>
comen los indios pã de grano de maiz molido:& hazẽ dello buen pã que ed de mucho mãtenimiẽto. de eſta miſma harina de maiz cozida en calderas & tinajas grandes en mucha aqua hazen vino para beuer:
<br/>
The indies of this contreie do ete of brede made with mais wᶜʰ maketh good brede and is of moche sustenaunce, and of the said corne thei make ther drynke
</blockquote>
<p>Note how the second <i>maiz</i> occurrence was translated <i>corn</i>.</p>
<p>A few English dialects have their own words for maize. South African <i>mealie(s)</i>, from Afrikaans <i>mielie</i>, from Dutch <i>milie</i>, ultimately from Latin <i>milium</i> 'millet'. New Zealand <i>kānga</i> from Maori, itself just Engllish <i>corn</i> adapted to its phonology. In the same way as Hawaiian has <i>kūlina</i>. Or Tok Pisin <i>kon</i> or Nigerian Pidgin <i>kᴐ̃n</i>. Analogously, Haitian Creole has <i>mayi</i>.</p>
<p>The rapid spread of maize throughout the world was part of the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12231-022-09563-6">Columbian Exchange</a>. But there are gaps in the history. And, as we shall see, some amount of controversy; much more, for some reason, than <a href="/2007/04/chili-part-i.html">chili peppers</a> or <a href="/2007/07/potato.html">potatoes</a>.</p>
<p>There is reasonably reliable evidence of precisely where and when Europeans were introduced to maize, the word and the grain. On Nov 2nd, 1492, two crew members and two Indians went inland on Cuba with beads and sought-after spice samples to find the king and negotiate a trade agreement. The Spaniards were <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodrigo_de_Jerez">Rodrigo de Jerez</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_de_Torres">Luis de Torres</a>, a converso who knew Hebrew, Aramaic, and some Arabic and was to act as interpreter. They found a village, were well received, and introduced to smoking tobacco and maize. They returned on the 5th with some Indians from there and the new found plant products.</p>
<p>Christopher Columbus kept a journal, of which several copies were made, as soon as he returned to Spain, for the court. All of these were lost, but not before at least two writers had access. The obvious one was Christopher's son <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Columbus">Ferdinand</a>, who was educated at court after the first voyage, accompanied his father when thirteen on the fourth voyage, and later settled down as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libro_de_los_Ep%C3%ADtomes">bibliophile</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleitos_colombinos">litigant</a>. His <i>Historie</i>, a life of his father, was written in Spanish, then translated into Italian before <em>that</em> manuscript was lost; it had to be translated <em>back</em> into Spanish, but not until 1749. The section in chapter 28 concerning the introduction to maize differs between the <a href="https://archive.org/details/historiedelsdfer00coln/page/n161/mode/2up">1571</a> and <a href="https://archive.org/details/historiedelsigdo00coln/page/116/mode/2up">1614</a> editions only in correcting a missing accent.<p>
<blockquote>
Et che i ſemi erano molti di quelle radici, come di fagiuoli, & di certa ſorte di faue, & di vn'altro grano, come paniccio, da lor chiamato Mahiz, di buoniſſimo ſapore cotto, ò ariſtito ò peſto in polente. (tr. Ulloa)
<br/>
lo que ſembravan eran muchas raices de aquellas, i cierta eſpecie de Habas, i otro grano, que llamaban Maiz, de mui buen ſabor, cocido, ó toſtado, ò hecho polenta (tr. <a href="https://archive.org/details/lahistoriadedfer01coln/page/24/mode/2up">???</a>)
<br/>
They also saw much land planted to the roots mentioned above, to kidney beans, to some kind of horse beans, and to a grain resembhng panic grass that they call maize and is most tasty, boiled, roasted, or ground into flour (tr. <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.185547/page/n97/mode/2up">Keen</a>)
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Martyr_d%27Anghiera">Peter Martyr</a> was also educated at court. His <i>Decades</i> documented Spanish discoveries, and the first part of the first one covered the first voyage. There is an interesting difference between the <a href="https://archive.org/details/pmartyrisanglime00angh/page/n49/mode/2up">1511</a> and <a href="https://archive.org/details/deorbenouopetrim00angh/page/4/mode/1up">1530</a> editions, where a sentence is added giving the Taino name.</p>
<blockquote>
Panem et ex frumēto quodā panico: cuius eſt apud inſubꝛes ⁊ granatēſes hiſpanos maxima copia nō magno diſcrimine confitiūt. Eſt huius mappa longioꝛ ſpitama in acutuꝫ tēdēs: lacerti fere craſſitudine. Gꝛana miro oꝛdine a natura cōfixa. Foꝛma et coꝛpe piſum legumē emalātur. Albēt acerba: vbi maturuerūt nigerrima efficiunt᷑: fract candoꝛe niuē exuperāt:
<br/>
Panem & ex frumento quodā panico, cuius eſt apud Inſubres & Granatenſes Hiſpanos maxima copia, non magno diſcrimine conficiunt. Eſt huius panicula longior ſpitama in acutum tendens, lacerti fere craſſitudine. Grana miro ordine a natura cōfixa. Forma & corpore piſum legum æmulātur. Albent acerba, vbi matueurrunt nigerrima efficiuntur, fracta candore niuē exuperant. Maiziū id frumenti genus appellant.
<br/>
They make alſo an other kynde of bꝛeade of a certayne pulſe, called <i>Panicum</i>, muche lyke vnto wheate, wherof is great plentie in the dukedome of Mylane, Spayne, and Granatum. But that of this countrey is longer by a ſpanne, ſomewhat ſharpe towarde the ende, and as bygge as a mannes arme in the bꝛawne: The graynes wherof are ſette in a maruelous oꝛder, and are in fourme ſomwhat lyke a peafe. While they be ſoure and vnripe, they are white : but when they are ripe they be very blacke. When they are bꝛoken, they be whyter then ſnowe. This kynde of grayne, they call <i>Maizivm</i>. (tr. <a href="https://archive.org/details/decadesofnewewor00angh/page/n63/mode/2up">Eden</a>)
<br/>
The islanders also easily make bread with a kind of millet, similar to that which exists plenteously amongst the Milanese and Andalusians. This millet is a little more than a palm in length, ending in a point, and is about the thickness of the upper part of a man's arm. The grains are about the form and size of peas. While they are growing, they are white, but become black when ripe. When ground they are whiter than snow. This kind of grain is called maiz. (tr. <a href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924068847981/page/n85/mode/2up">MacNutt</a>)
</blockquote>
<p>Perhaps this was because <i>mais</i> was by then gaining some currency, as opposed to <i>panizo</i>.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas">Bartolomé de las Casas</a> had access one of the (apparently inaccurate) copies. He wrote a summary, which was lost until 1790, when <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Navarrete">Navarrete</a>, a librarian retired from maritime service, found it. He published an edition with regularized spelling in 1825. An English translation by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Kettell">Kettell</a> came out in Boston in 1827. In 1892, the <i>Raccolta Columbiana</i>, for the 400th anniversary and in an Italy unified only thirty years before, published what amounts to a variorum <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/chi.102574145?urlappend=%3Bseq=193%3Bownerid=13510798903273687-197">edition</a> by footnoting in bits from Ferdinand's <i>Historie</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Eliot_Morison">Samuel Eliot Morison</a>, the Harvard historian and sailor, wrote an <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507257">account</a> of the summary's publication history to 1939, including a number of complaints about the nautical understanding of the translators; a couple years later, he wrote a detailed <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_american-neptune_1941-01_1_1/page/6/mode/2up">technical description</a> of how Columbus's reckoning of position in the journal went wrong; and he included a better translation in a 1963 Heritage Press edition of documents on Columbus, a <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/1020597">slipcased volume</a> that is a fairly common library sale and used bookstore find. A 1989 <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/809609">critical edition</a> with facsimile, careful transcription, and concordance by Dunn and Kelley won a Quincentennial of the Discovery Prize; a paperback printing came out in 1991, and is also reasonably easy to find cheap now that the anniversary is long past. Meanwhile, photos of the original manuscript are now available on the Internet: <a href="http://bdh.bne.es/bnesearch/detalle/bdh0000048660">here</a>. I cannot figure out how to link to a specific image on <a href="http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000048660&page=1">this site.</a> Folio 22 recto is number 43.</p>
<blockquote>
la tr̅r̅a̅ my̅ fertil y my̅ labrada de aq̃llos mañes y fexoes y havas my̅ diuerſas dlas nr̅a̅s̅ /. eſo miſmo panizo
<br/>
La tierra muy fértil y muy labrada de aquellos mames y fexoes y habas muy diversas de las nuestras, eso mismo panizo (ed. <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_rA8muSmEJ0wC/page/52/mode/2up">Navarette</a>)
<br/>
The soil appeared fertile and under good cultivation, producing the <i>mames</i> aforementioned and beans very dissimilar to ours, as well as the grain called panic-grass. (tr. <a href="https://archive.org/details/personalnarrati00colu/page/78/mode/2up">Kettell</a>)
<br/>
The land is very fertile and much cultivated with yams and beans and [other] beans very different from ours, as well as panic-grass (tr. Morison)
<br/>
The earth is very fertile and planted with those <i>mañes</i> and bean varieties very different from ours, and with that same millet. (tr. Dunn and Kelley)
<br/>
</blockquote>
<p>Las Casas also wrote a <i>Historia de las Indias</i>, but it wasn't published until 1875. It includes this <a href="https://archive.org/details/historiaindias01casarich/page/332/mode/2up">mention:</a></p>
<blockquote>
y del grano que llaman los indios maiz, que ellos llamaban panizo, hallaban mucha cantidad.
<br/>
and of the grain that the Indians call <i>maiz</i>, which they called <i>panizo</i>, they found a great quantity.
</blockquote>
<p>Priority for actual publication of the Spanish encounter with maize goes to a pamphlet by Nicolò Syllacio, dedicated to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovico_Sforza">Duke of Milan</a>, translating into Latin (and embellishing) letters from his friend Guglielmo Coma that were hurried back aboard one of first ships returning from the second voyage, printed in late 1494 by another friend Johannes Antonius de Birretis. It contains the following <a href="https://archive.org/details/christophercolum21thac/page/229/mode/1up">section:</a></p>
<blockquote>
Eſt pꝛeterea fȩcundum ſementis genus: magnitudine lupini: ciceris rotunditate: farina pꝛodit effracto tenuiſſimo polline teritur vt frumentum: panis conficit ſciti ſapoꝛis. multis quibus tenuioꝛ victus: grana mādētibus.
<br/>
There is here, besides, a prolific sort of grain of the size of a lupin, round like a vetch, from which when broken a very fine flour is made. It is ground like wheat. A bread of exquisite taste is made from it. Many who are stinted in food chew the grains in their natural state. (tr. <a href="https://archive.org/details/christophercolum21thac/page/249/mode/1up trans">Thacher</a>)
</blockquote>
<p>What of Luis de Torres, the crew's interpreter? Washington Irving interpolates, <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyoflifevoy01unse/page/118/mode/2up">first</a> on the plan, “one or other of which languages, Columbus supposed might be known to this oriental prince,” and <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyoflifevoy01unse/page/122/mode/2up">then</a> on its success, “The Israelite, Luis de Torres, found his Hebrew, Chaldaic and Arabic of no avail, and the Lucayan interpreter had to be the orator.” De Torres remained on Hispaniola in the fort La Navidad, which had been wiped out by the time a new expedition returned from Spain the following year. (Another section of the Syllacio-Coma letter says this was because the native inhabitants got fed up with the Spanish behavior toward the local women. <a href="https://archive.org/details/christophercolum21thac/page/234/mode/1up">text</a> <a href="https://archive.org/details/christophercolum21thac/page/254/mode/2up">translation</a>) Wikipedia properly points this out, but the sources are a bit confusing: the de Jerez entry has a link to a <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180707202551/http://history-world.org/Columbus,%20List%20of%20Sailors.htm">Wayback Machine archive</a> of a page that copies a 1892 <a href="https://archive.org/details/discoveryofameri02fisk/page/594/mode/2up">appendix</a> that translates a 1883 <a href="https://archive.org/details/colnypinzninfor00durogoog/page/n172/mode/1up">list</a> by Duro, where de Torres is actually listed among those who returned to Spain. But by 1892, Duro had found new information and published an <a href="https://archive.org/details/lanaosantamara00monl/page/60/mode/2up">updated list</a>; on that one, de Torres is among those who remained. Now, one of the goals of the settlement was <a href="https://archive.org/details/historiedelsdfer00coln/page/n183/mode/2up"><i>apprendendo quella lingua</i></a>, so perhaps that was a factor. Still, <i>Christopher Columbus and the Participation of the Jews in the Spanish and Portuguese Discoveries</i>, even though it scrupulously footnotes its sources in the <a href="https://archive.org/details/chriscolpartjews00kaysrich/page/94/mode/2up">couple pages</a> on de Torres, seems to me to have missed the quality of his last year. In particular, the allowance granted by their Catholic Majesties was to <a href="https://archive.org/details/bibliografiacolo00raca/page/24/mode/2up">his widow and heirs</a>.</p>
<p>Maize was domesticated in Central America around 5-10 thousands years ago. By the time the Spanish arrived, it was cultivated throughout the New World: from roughly as far north as the where the Canadian border is now as far south as what is now Chile, at sea level and in the Andes, from where the summer growing season was only a few weeks long to near the equator where it grew year round. All of the corn varieties that Stutevant <a href="https://archive.org/details/varietiesofcorn57stur/page/26/mode/2up">proposed</a> at the end of the 19th century — a system no longer considered to have any botanical significance, but still mostly used in commerce — already existed: pop, flint, dent, soft/flour, and sweet. For many of the American cultures, maize was an integral part of the cosmology / religion.</p>
<p>Maize was fundamentally important to the New World civilizations that the Spanish found and conquered. Among the Aztecs, in the <a href="https://www.librarything.com/nseries/53332/Florentine-Codex">Florentine Codex</a>, which regularly features in discussions here of foods of Central American origin, it is easy to find an <a href="https://www.loc.gov/resource/gdcwdl.wdl_10096_001/?sp=175">illustration</a>. The Online Nahuatl Dictionary has a thematic page of <a href="https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/themes/corn-maize">corn words</a>, with all the terms giving detailed citations. Naturally, there isn't really a “word for maize,” as opposed to its more important forms: <a href="https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/content/cintli"><i>cintli</i></a> (<a href="https://archive.org/details/vocabularioenlen00moli/page/n303/mode/1up">Molina</a>) 'dried corn cob', <a href="https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/content/elotl"><i>elotl</i></a> (<a href="https://archive.org/details/vocabularioenlen00moli/page/n315/mode/1up">Molina</a>) 'fresh corn cob', and <a href="https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/content/tlaolli"><i>tlaolli</i></a> (<a href="https://archive.org/details/vocabularioenlen00moli/page/130/mode/1up">Molina</a>) 'corn kernels'. <i>Elotl</i> is the source of Mexican Spanish word <i>elote</i>. I would have said “English word,” except that no dictionary seems to have admitted it yet, plus it only gets a subsection on Wikipedia. Of course, typed into Google, there are pages and pages of pictures, descriptions, recipes, and reminiscences. I do not think this is a principled objection; all the major dictionaries have both <i>banh mi</i> and <i>pad thai</i>. Rather, I think these are more likely to occur in English (non-cooking) prose, which may say something about the image of urban multiculturalism that they portray and <i>elote</i> does not. Oddly enough, M-W does have an entry for <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/elotillo"><i>elotillo</i></a>. <i>Tlaolli</i> is used in the reverse of the common naming pattern of this discussion, where <i>castilan taoli</i> means 'wheat'. It is also the word chosen by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Philipp_von_Martius">Martius</a> to expand his <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_B3z7W40v4oAC/page/n449/mode/2up">list</a> of words from the languages he encountered in Brazil.</p>
<p>Maize cultivation predates the break-up of the proto-language of the language(s) of the Classic Maya Script, languages encountered by the Spanish in Yucatan, and those spoken there today, so there are often clear correspondences. It is perhaps worth keeping in mind the history of the encounter of the writing system with the Renaissance, Enlightenment, and Modern European cultures, as in “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25478468">How Maya Hieroglyphs Got Their Name</a>: Egypt, Mexico, and China in Western Grammatology since the Fifteenth Century.” And, specifically, that well into the last quarter of the twentieth century there were ideas about Mayan as wrong as Kircher was about Chinese and Egyptian. Only after the end of the Cold War and into this century was it basically, if imperfectly and sometimes still contentiously, readable as the written form of a real language. But a benefit of this is that much of it happens with modern communication. A ca. 1577 <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diccionario_de_Motul"><i>Diccionario de Motul</i></a> is among the treasures digitized by Brown University. The FAMSI website has a number of online <a href="http://www.famsi.org/mayawriting/dictionary.htm">dictionaries</a>, either transcriptions of older ones or works-in-progress on new ones. These include a <a href="http://www.famsi.org/reports/96072/index.html">combined dictionary of Yucatecan</a>, collating some earlier work, including the Motul manuscripts (it is a little fussy to use because there are no separate headword anchors). And two languages of the written form, one slightly more <a href="http://research.famsi.org/mdp/mdp_index.php">word-oriented</a> and the other slightly more <a href="http://www.famsi.org/mayawriting/dictionary/montgomery/index.html">glyph-oriented.</a> Following the naming of pages on the site, the former will be distinguished as “mdp.” Note that there is still no Unicode encoding of Maya glyphs. Sometimes the numbers from Thompson's <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/1066693"><i>Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs </i></a> are used, preceded by the letter T, much as Egyptologists use Gardiner's sign list, although without anything as complicated as the Manuel de Codage for layout. Some maize words:</p>
<ul>
<li><i>ixim</i> 'maize', in general, and specifically kernels of the grain. Motul has this for the translation of Spanish <a href="https://archive.org/details/diccionariodemot02ciud/page/n277/mode/2up"><i>mayz</i></a>. <a href="http://www.famsi.org/reports/96072/i/ix_u_zihnal_iztuc.htm">combined</a> (search for ixim) <a href="http://research.famsi.org/mdp/mdp_detail.php?id=1083">mdp</a>. Usually written with a logogram (but see below), sometimes preceded by the <a href="http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=350">T679 <i>i-</i></a> syllable. (Confirming that it starts like that.) A little further away, Huasteca has <i>iziz</i> (for instance, in <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rR9UklX2DDwC&pg=PA72">this</a> 1767 dictionary).</li>
<li><i>nal</i> 'maize' still on the cob, but also sometimes in general. Motul <a href="https://archive.org/details/diccionariodemot01ciud/page/n653/mode/2up"><i>nal</i></a> <a href="http://www.famsi.org/reports/96072/n/nai_namkahal.htm">combined</a> (search for nal) <a href="http://research.famsi.org/mdp/mdp_detail.php?id=639">mdp</a>. Written with several logograms, known as the “maize curl”: <a href="http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=676">T84</a> <a href="http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=680">T86</a> <a href="http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=681">T86</a>; these are also used as a suffix indicating 'place of/where'.</li>
<li><i>wa</i> 'tamale'. Motul <a href="https://archive.org/details/diccionariodemot01ciud/page/n885/mode/2up"><i>vah</i></a> <a href="http://www.famsi.org/reports/96072/uadic.htm">combined</a> (search for uah) <a href="http://research.famsi.org/mdp/mdp_detail.php?id=937">mpd</a>. <a href="http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=1027">T506</a> is also used to write the <i>wa</i> syllable and may well have originated as a picture of a maize kernel. The archeological evidence, in particular the lack of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comal_(cookware)">comales</a>, is taken to indicate that pre-contact Mayans ate their maize breads as tamales and not tortillas.</li>
<li><i>ul</i> 'maize gruel' <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atole">atole</a>. Motul <a href="https://archive.org/details/diccionariodemot01ciud/page/n909/mode/2up"><i>vl</i></a> <a href="http://www.famsi.org/reports/96072/udic1.htm">combined</a> (search for ul 4) <a href="http://research.famsi.org/mdp/mdp_detail.php?id=909">mdp</a>. Written syllabically as <a href="http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=994">T738v.568 <i>u-lu</i></a> or with <a href="http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=989">T513 <i>u-</i></a> for the first syllable. This was often drunk with cacao. Other words for maize gruel drinks were <i>coyem</i> <a href="http://www.famsi.org/reports/96072/k/keu_kijxil.htm">combined</a> (search for keyem); and <i>sa</i> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081025192355/http://www.famsi.org/reports/96072/zdic.htm">combined</a> (search for za; note link is to Wayback Machine, since site has corrupt Z PDF file) <a href="http://research.famsi.org/mdp/mdp_detail.php?id=761">mdp</a>, <a href="http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=801">T278 <i>sa</i></a> <a href="http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=824"><i>sa</i></a>. Note that these are glossed both <i>atol</i> and <i>poçol</i>. English Wikipedia has <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozole"><i>pozole</i></a> as a hominy soup (easily made vegan: the recently closed <i>Gracias Madre</i> here in San Francisco cooked <a href="https://www.yelp.com/biz_photos/gracias-madre-san-francisco?caption=pozole">one</a>), which feels about right, with a disambiguation to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozol"><i>pozol</i></a>, the dough and drink made from it. While the OED's <a href="https://www.oed.com/dictionary/posole_n"><i>posole</i></a> has two senses: a maize preparation, including a soup, and a drink. RAE's DLE has <a href="https://dle.rae.es/pozol"><i>pozol</i></a> in Honduras as (4) a drink or (5) <a href="https://dle.rae.es/pozole"><i>pozole</i></a> whose sense there looks more or less the same (take note that the link has <code>#CiatHCn</code>, which is sense 1; so sense 2, Mexican stew, which would be <code>#CialeXc</code>, or the whole entry, is not intended). ASALE's <i>Diccionario de americanismos</i> seems clearer: <a href="https://www.asale.org/damer/pozol"><i>pozol</i></a> is a drink and <a href="https://www.asale.org/damer/pozole"><i>pozole</i></a> is the same or, in Mexico, a stew. These are from Nahuatl <a href="https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/content/pozolli"><i>pozolli</i></a> < <a href="https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/content/pozoni"><i>pozoni</i></a> 'frothy'; but note Molina's (1571) <a href="https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/content/pozol-atl"><i>pozol atl</i></a>, a drink (<a href="https://archive.org/details/vocabularioenlen00moli/page/n423/mode/1up">original</a>). The drink is the only sense for <i>pozol</i> given in <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/31167311"><i>Vocabulario de indigenismos en las Crónicas de Indias</i></a>. (I am not sure why, but that work has an <em>inverse</em> index, in which <i>mayz</i> is the last entry.) <a href="https://www.oed.com/dictionary/atole_n"><i>atole</i></a> is also enough of an English word for the OED.</li>
</ul>
<p>The Primary Standard Sequence (PSS) is the term traditionally used for standardized patterns of glyphs on Mayan ceramics, particularly cups, although there is some push for calling these by the more obvious “Dedicatory Formula.” “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/680877">Folk Classification of Classic Maya Pottery</a>” gives some more detail and less formally <a href="https://mayadecipherment.com/2013/09/09/archives-glyphs-on-pots/"><i>Glyphs on Pots</i></a>. The FAMSI site has a <a href="http://www.famsi.org/mayawriting/calvin/index.html">Glyph Guide</a>, one of whose sections is on the PSS; there is also a <a href="http://www.famsi.org/reports/02047/FinalReport02047.pdf">report</a> on their database of them. The formula supplies one or more of the owner's name, the artist's name, and the intended contents. As noted in its dictionary entry, <i>ul</i> is somewhat common for the contents, though not as common as <a href="http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=445"><i>kakaw</i></a> 'cacao'; so such a legend would mean “X's cup for atole.”</p>
<p>Maya numerals have an anthropomorphic head form as well as bars and dots. It has long been accepted that the numeral <a href="http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=1001">eight</a> represents a form of the Maize God; some now believe that <a href="http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=364">one</a> does as well. “<a href="https://www.precolumbia.org/pari/journal/archive/PARI1502.pdf">On the Reading of Three Classic Maya Portrait Glyphs</a>” further proposes <i>ixim</i> and <i>nal</i> as possible names for this. The <a href="https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/calakmul/Calakmul-murals.pdf">Calakmul murals</a> depict some scenes of <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0904374106#F5">daily life</a>. There are several captions using an agentive <a href="http://research.famsi.org/mdp/mdp_detail.php?id=83">AJ</a> prefix. One for <i>AJ ul</i> 'maize gruel person'. And the even more interesting <i>AJ i-xi-ma</i> 'maize grain person', because this is the first identified spelling of <i>ixim</i> just using syllables.</p>
<p>Of the illustrations for the months in the final chapter of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_primer_nueva_cor%C3%B3nica_y_buen_gobierno"><i>Nueva corónica y buen gobierno</i></a> (1615), eight of the twelve (<a href="https://poma.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/1142/es/text/?open=idm747">J</a><a href="https://poma.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/1145/es/text/?open=idm747">F</a><a href="https://poma.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/1148/es/text/?open=idm747">M</a><a href="https://poma.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/1151/es/text/?open=idm747">A</a><a href="https://poma.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/1154/es/text/?open=idm747">M</a>J<a href="https://poma.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/1160/es/text/?open=idm747">J</a>A<a href="https://poma.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/1166/es/text/?open=idm747">S</a>O<a href="https://poma.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/1172/es/text/?open=idm747">N</a>D) feature maize and consequently have <b>ƷARA</b> in big letters at the top. These are natural out-of-copyright illustrations for writing about the Incas or maize or the Incas and maize. The modern Quechua spelling is <i>sara</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Holgu%C3%ADn">Holguín</a> (1608 <a href="https://archive.org/details/vocabulariodelal01gonz/page/n83/mode/2up">Q→S</a> <a href="https://archive.org/details/vocabulariodelal01gonz/page/210/mode/2up">S→Q</a>) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domingo_de_Santo_Tom%C3%A1s">Santo Tomás</a> (1560 for the coastal dialect around Lima <a href="https://archive.org/details/lexiconovocabula00domi/page/n247/mode/2up">Q→S</a> <a href="https://archive.org/details/lexiconovocabula00domi/page/n161/mode/2up">S→Q</a>) spelled it <i>çara</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inca_Garcilaso_de_la_Vega">Inca Garcilaso de la Vega</a> wrote in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comentarios_Reales_de_los_Incas"><i>Comentarios Reales de los Incas</i></a> (1609):</p>
<blockquote>
De los frutos que ſe crian en cima de la tierra, tiene el primer lugar el grano, que los Mexicanos y los Balouentanos llaman Maiz, y los del Peru, Cara: porque es el pan que ellos teniã. Es de dos maneras, el vno es duro, que llamã Muruchu, y el otro tierno y de mucho regalo, que llaman Capia: comenlo en lugar de pan, toſtado o cocido en agua ſimple: … Todo lo qual vi por mis ojos, y me ſuſtente haſta los nueue o diez años cõ la çara q̃ es el Mayz, cuyo pan tiene tres nõbres, çancu era el de los ſacrificios, Huminta, el de ſus fieſtas y regalo, Tanta, pronunciada la primera ſilaba enel palador, es el pan comun, la çara toſtada llaman Camcha quiere dezir Mayz toſtado, incluye en ſi el nombre adjetiuo, y el ſuſtantiuo, haſe de pronunciar con m, porque con la n, ſignifica barrio de vezindad, o vn gran cercado. A la çara cozida llaman Muti (y los Eſpañoles Mote) quiere dezir Mayz cozido, incluyen do en ſi ambos nombres. (<a href="https://archive.org/details/primerapartedelo00vega/page/n439/mode/2up">Lib. viii, Cap. ix</a>)
<br/>
Of the fruits which grow aboveground, the most important is that which the Mexicans and people of the Antilles call <i>maiz</i> and the Peruvians <i>sara</i>; for it yields their bread. There are two kinds: one is hard and is called <i>muruchu</i> and the other, called <i>capia</i>, is tender and highly esteemed. They eat it instead of bread, either toasted or boiled in pure water. … I saw all this with my own eyes, and was sustained until my nineteenth year on this <i>sara</i>, which is called maize, the bread of which has three names—<i>cancu</i> used for sacrifices, <i>huminta</i> used on special occasions, and <i>ttanta</i> (pronounced with the first syllable from the palate) is the ordinary bread. Toasted maize is called <i>camcha</i>, which includes the adjective and substantive. It must be pronounced with <i>m</i>, because with n it means a great yard or the ward of a city. Boiled maize is called <i>muti</i> (corrupted by the Spaniards into <i>moti</i>). (tr. <a href="https://archive.org/details/workss1v45hakl/page/354/mode/2up">Markham</a>)
</blockquote>
<p>South American Spanish has <a href="https://dle.rae.es/sanco"><i>sanco</i></a> and <a href="https://dle.rae.es/humita"><i>humita</i></a>; the latter even has an English Wikipedia <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humita">page</a>. As predicted, both Quechua words end up as <a href="https://dle.rae.es/cancha"><i>cancha</i></a> and it is still <a href="https://dle.rae.es/mote?m=form#PvcQkdT"><i>mote²</i></a>. <i>Tanta</i> is the regular word for 'bread', often now wheat, including the special <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%27anta_wawa"><i>tanta wawa</i></a> 'bread baby' for Nov 2nd. Holguín has (S→Q <a href="https://archive.org/details/vocabulariodelal01gonz/page/248/mode/2up"><i>pan</i></a>), “<i>Pan de trigo, Ttanta; Pan de quinua, Piſqui ttanta; Pan de maiz, çanco; Pan en empanada, Huminta o tamales.</i>”, so the sense may have already been pretty general. The festival with <i>sanco</i> was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situa">situa</a>.</p>
<p>The translator (1847) of the de la Vega excerpts above, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clements_Markham">Markham</a>, included a footnote giving the Aymara (the substantial majority “dialect” in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Collao_Province">Collao</a>) word for maize: <i>tonco</i>. A more common modern spelling is <i>tunqu</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovico_Bertonio">Bertonio</a> (1612) also spelled it <a href="https://archive.org/details/vocabulariodelal00bert/page/358/mode/2up">tonco</a>. The system used in the translation of <i>The Book of Mormon</i>, e.g. <a href="https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/mosiah/9?lang=aym">Mos 9:9</a>, uses <i>tonko</i>. Some anthropological works have <i>t'on'ko</i>, presumably to accurately capture the phonemes. <i>Quri tunqu</i> 'golden maize' is a 2007 stop motion animated short film from Isla del Sol, Bolivia meant to teach ecology; the young superheros use the title stalk to defeat the garbage monster. Not so long ago, one could only see such things at the Carpenter Center or BAMPFA, but now it is on <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=euyjwRZiw_I">YouTube</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Lengua">Media Lengua</a> is a mixed language, per <a href="https://apics-online.info/surveys/73">Pieter Muysken</a>, “essentially Quechua with the vast majority of its stems replaced by Spanish forms.” (Missing from John Cowan's <a href="http://vrici.lojban.org/~cowan/essential.html">Essentialist Explanations</a>.) Which just results in <i>mais</i>. But more interesting is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kallawaya_language">Kallawaya</a>, a highly endangered language used only by the (mostly male) itinerant healers <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kallawaya">of the same name</a> and learned as part of their training and not as a cradle language. All discussions I can find seem to agree that 'maize' is <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m9sxvZISUrUC&q=utilu+maiz&dq=utilu+maiz"><i>utilu</i></a>, citing sources like <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qNsyAAAAIAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=utilu+maiz">this</a>. I have not found anything that offers an etymology for this word, and a <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=to6P22ieV5kC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA443#v=onepage&q=corn%20utilu&f=false">comparison</a> with neighboring languages does not seem to suggest anything. Now, the traditional explanation is that Kallawaya is Quechua grammar with a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puquina_language">Pukina</a> lexicon, possibly from contact, or deliberately to obscure it; additional evidence for the latter is the lack of any early European record of the healers <em>having</em> a secret language. This is made harder because Pukina, which <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfredo_Torero">Torero</a>'s thesis called, "la troisième langue générale du Pérou," is extinct and about all we know of it is from religious works, such as a 1607 <i>Rituale seu Manuale Peruanum</i>. I believe Torero's <a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/11338281"><i>Idiomas de los Andes</i></a> has the entire known lexicon. In looking for something that might have given <i>utilu</i>, one possibility with the religious context as a constraint would be the <i>panem</i> of the Pater Noster. (See below for the same idea further north.) But that <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wzdqVUKOFEgC&pg=PA400#v=onepage&q&f=false">turns out</a> to be 'tanta', just like in Quechua. Perhaps this was originally shared or perhaps it was borrowed specifically for the prayer after its sense had broadened enough to include what the missionaries wanted for 'bread'. More <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/nuevomundo/67220#article-67220">recent</a> <a href="https://www.academia.edu/68871899/The_Etymology_of_Kallawaya">work</a> on Kallawaya by <a href="https://ifl.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/en/general-linguistics/people/prof-dr-katja-hannss">Katja Hannß</a> identifies a wider set of source languages than Pukina and also indicates that it is / was less secret than has been supposed. That work includes an <a href="https://lac.uni-koeln.de/bundle/11341/00-0000-0000-0000-1AD5-6">Etymological dictionary of Kallawaya</a>, which has a row for <i>utilo~utilu~utili</i>, confirming the sources giving the word, but the <b>From X</b> etymology column is empty. Moving on, “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30028309">Pachamama is a Spanish word</a>” gives some special terminology associated with <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challa">Ch'alla</a> ceremonies, including <i>p'aqula</i> for 'maize'. This is not a secret language, as most adult members of the community understand it, so much as a ritual one. The terms are based on Aymara and the paper proposes a literal meaning of <i>p'aqula</i> as 'brown one' (which is <a href="https://www.explainxkcd.com/wiki/index.php/2381:_The_True_Name_of_the_Bear">said</a> to be Germanic taboo avoidance giving <i>bear</i>; but that is more <a href="http://langevo.blogspot.com/2016/01/enter-beaver.html">probably</a> 'wild one'; the OED <a href="https://www.oed.com/dictionary/bear_n1?tab=etymology">s.v.</a> still gives the first, but perhaps the second).</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernab%C3%A9_Cobo">Cobo</a> (1653, but not published until 1890, with modernized spelling) tried to explain the differences among the default maize breads in Central and Northern and Southern South America, (<a href="https://archive.org/details/historiadelnuev00cobogoog/page/340/mode/2up">Lib. iv, Cap. iii</a>):</p>
<blockquote>
Desta manera se hacen unas tortillas delgadas, que se tuestan ó cuecen en unas cazuelas de barro puestas al fuego; y este es el pan más regalado que los indios hacen de <i>Maíz</i>, el cual en el Perú se llama <i>Tanta</i> y en la Nueva España <i>Tlascale</i>. No son en todas partes de una manera estas tortillas: en la Nueva España las hacen delgadas del canto de una herradura; en Tierra Firme, tan gruesas como un dedo, que llaman <i>Arepas</i>; las que se hacían en el Perú eran como las de Nueva España; y las unas y las otras se han de comer calientes, porque, en enfriándose, se ponen correosas como cuero mojado y son desabridas.
<br/>
In this way, thin tortillas are made, which are toasted or cooked in clay pots placed on the fire; and this is the most precious bread that the Indians make from maize, which in Peru is called <i>tanta</i> and in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Spain">Mexico</a> <a href="https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/content/tlaxcalli"><i>tlaxcalli</i></a>. These tortillas are not the same everywhere: in Mexico they make them as thin as the edge of a horseshoe; in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Tierra_Firme">Colombia</a>, as thick as a finger, which they call <i>arepas</i>; those made in Peru were like those of Mexico; and both must be eaten hot, because when they cool, they become leathery like wet leather and are tasteless.
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Acosta">Acosta</a> also mentions arepas (<i>Historia natural</i> <a href="https://archive.org/details/historianaturaly00acos_2/page/236/mode/2up">Lib. iv Cap. 16</a> tr <a href="https://archive.org/details/naturalmoralhis00markgoog/page/n289/mode/2up">Markham</a>) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Sim%C3%B3n">Pedro Simón</a> included <i>arepa</i> in the <a href="https://archive.org/details/primerapartedela00simn/page/n717/mode/2up">glossary</a> to his <i>Noticias</i>. It is enough of an English word to make it into American dictionaries and Collins, but not yet the OED.</p>
<p>One of the notes that Burton added to his friend Albert Tootal's translation, <i>The Captivity of Hans Stade</i>, <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.01165/page/49/mode/1up">explains</a> the Tupi word <a href="https://archive.org/details/staden/page/n56/mode/1up">Abbati</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
This word is written Abaty, Abatij, Abaxi, Abashi, and Ubatim (<i>Noticia do Brazil</i>); it is applied to the Milho de Guiné, in old Portuguese Zaburro, Zea Mays, Maïs, or Maize, a Haytian word which Yves d'Evreux writes "May", and explains blé de Turquie.
</blockquote>
<p>He then calls out Southey for <em>his</em> <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyofbrazil01sout/page/180/mode/2up">note</a> claiming that <i>Auati</i> (from de Bry's <a href="https://archive.org/details/americaetertiapa00stad_1/page/33/mode/1up">Latin</a> of this same section) is cashew. The context of all this is the intoxicating liquors made from various grains and fruits.<br/>And then in the introduction to <i>Letters from the Battle-Fields of Paraguay</i>, Burton <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.03714/page/6/mode/1up">reminds</a> his readers of the Guarani names for various kinds:</p>
<blockquote>
Old writers give four kinds of maize in these regions: — 1. Abati nata, a very hard grain. 2. Abati moroti, in Tupi “Marity” (means shining), a soft and white grain. 3. Abati mini, a small grain which ripens after a month. 4. Bisingallo, an angular and pointed grain, which gives the sweetest flour.
</blockquote>
<p>In one of the actual letters, he has <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.03714/page/137/mode/1up">another dig</a> at Southey for what the scansion of some <a href="https://archive.org/details/taleofparaguay00sout/page/25/mode/1up">lines</a> of <i>A Tale of Paraguay</i> implied about the (mis)pronunciation of Paraná and Guaraní. (<i>Par paranthèse</i> observations are, of course, what Burton's writings are all about.) The old writer that he had in mind is, I imagine, the Jesuit <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Dobrizhoffer">Dobrizhoffer</a>, who <a href="https://archive.org/details/historiadeabipo00dobrgoog/page/n438/mode/2up">gives</a> those names and descriptions in the same order. However, there appear to be printing errors in Burton: Dobrizhoffer wrote <i>hatâ</i>, <i>morotî</i>, and <i>mir̂i</i>. Dobrizhoffer is also the <a href="https://archive.org/details/historiadeabipo00dobrgoog/page/n124/mode/2up">source</a> of the family in Southey's poem. Maize occurs in the poem a couple times, as indicator of their destitute state. Note how both the Latin and the <a href="https://archive.org/details/geschichtederab01kreigoog/page/552/mode/2up">German translation</a> include that the Abipones call it <i>Nemelk</i> and, since the author was Austrian, that some Europeans call it <i>kukurùz</i> (more on that in the next installment). These names are left out of the <a href="https://archive.org/details/accountofabipone01dobr_1/page/424/mode/2up">English translation</a>, by Sara Coleridge, Southey's niece and daughter of his fellow Lake Poet (their wives were sisters). I suspect it's mostly due to this translation that modern English sources don't repeat Burton's typos in their maize name lists. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41762091">Races Of Maize In South America</a> names only yellow soft flour <i>abati moroti</i> and white flint <i>abati tupi</i>. Paraguay <a href="https://archive.org/details/monthlybulletin1101bure/page/713/mode/1up">Native Varieties and Preparation of Maize</a> has <i>abati-morote</i>, <i>abati-atâ</i> or <i>abati-tupi</i>, <i>abati-pita</i>, <i>abati-pinchinga</i>, and <i>abati-gaycurca</i>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.librarything.com/work/4561260"><i>Histories of Maize</i></a> is a series of papers from historical- botany, agronomy, anthropology, and linguistics, and combinations thereof, held together by a common plant / food rather than by discipline. (<a href="http://shell.cas.usf.edu/~rtykot/Histories%20of%20Maize%20TOC%20and%20Intro.pdf">Here</a> are the opening pages, giving the list of papers and introduction.) “Siouan Tribal Contacts and Dispersions Evidenced in the Terminology for Maize and Other Cultigens,” by <a href="https://sova.si.edu/details/NAA.2014-16?t=W&q=corn#ref291">Robert L. Rankin</a>, who was one of the editors of the <a href="https://csd.clld.org/">Comparative Siouan Dictionary</a> (mentioned before at <a href="https://languagehat.com/comparative-siouan-dictionary/">Language Hat</a>), uses the maize-related data therein. Siouan maize words tend to be derived from cucurbit words. As explained in an earlier <a href="/2007/04/spaghetti-squash.html">squash</a> post, we are mostly dealing with <i>C. pepo</i>. And 'gourd' and 'squash' distinguish whether or not it is eaten, ignoring edible gourds and ornamental squashes. And many of the squashes in question would otherwise be called pumpkins. Proto-Siouan has an identified common word for gourd, which was used for scooping and storing, but not squash, as domestication came later. Furthermore, maize domestication came later still. Along the way, it is possible that 'gourd>squash' words broadened their sense to cover vegetable crops in general. CSD distinguishes four corn words. This breakdown, and the details given on each of their associated pages, seems to mostly follow that used in Rankin's paper.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://csd.clld.org/parameters/966"><b>corn (1)</b></a>: a suffix added to a <a href="https://csd.clld.org/parameters/942"><b>cucurbit (1)</b></a> loanword. Lakota <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/la-966-1-1"><i>wagmésa</i></a> < <i>wagmų́</i>; Dakota <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/da-966-1-1"><i>wamną́heza</i></a> < <i>wamnų́</i>; Winnebago <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/wi-966-1-2"><i>wičąwás</i></a> < <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/wi-942-1-2"><i>wičąwą́</i></a>. The Proto-Algonquian word is something like <i>*-mekhwaan-</i>; I believe that is the same as <a href="https://archive.org/details/siebert-resurrecting-virginia-algonquian-from-the-dead-1975/page/344/mode/2up">Siebert</a>'s 'gourd' reconstruction. The possible suffixes are <i>*-heza</i> or <i>*-s(e)</i>.</li>
<li><a href="https://csd.clld.org/parameters/965"><b>corn (2)</b></a>: a Siouan compound of <a href="https://csd.clld.org/parameters/766"><b>gourd > squash</b></a> and <a href="https://csd.clld.org/parameters/757"><b>grass (4)</b></a>. For some reason the CSD wordlist does not include the actual maize terms; but they are easy enough to find in old dictionaries, so I have used those as links. Mandan <a href="https://archive.org/details/mandansastudyth00spingoog/page/n177/mode/1up"><i>kó-xąɂte</i></a> = <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/ma-766-1-1"><i>kó·</i></a> 'squash' + <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/ma-757-1-1">*<i>xąɂte</i></a> 'grass'; Hidatsa <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammardictionar00matt/page/n133/mode/2up"><i>kó·xa·ti</i></a>; Crow <i>xó·xa·ši</i>. The Mandan compound is transparent, but the others are not, implying that they were borrowed from Mandan.</li>
<li><a href="https://csd.clld.org/parameters/964"><b>corn (3)</b></a>: a suffix added to a <a href="https://csd.clld.org/parameters/941"><b>cucurbit (2)</b></a> word common to the South East across multiple language families. Omaha / Ponca <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/op-964-1-1"><i>wathą́zi</i></a> < <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/op-941-1-1"><i>wathą́</i></a>; Kansa <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/ks-964-1-1"><i>wakhózü</i></a> < <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/ks-941-1-1"><i>wakhą́</i></a>; Osage <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/os-964-1-1"><i>watoⁿçi</i></a> < <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/os-941-1-1"><i>wathą́</i></a>; Quapaw <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/qu-964-1-1"><i>wathą́se</i></a> < <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/qu-941-1-1"><i>wathą́</i></a>. The suffix is normally <i>*-se</i>. However, this has sometimes developed into <i>*-zi</i> under the influence of <a href="https://csd.clld.org/parameters/7"><b>yellow</b></a>; if so, this is probably recent, as is yellow maize. A further added <i>*-hü</i> is <a href="https://csd.clld.org/parameters/110"><b>stalk</b></a>. The <i>*wa-</i> prefix is <a href="https://csd.clld.org/parameters/1180"><b>absolutive</b></a>. Thus other occurrences of the base word outside Siouan are Choctaw <i>tą·či</i>; Chicasaw / Mobilian jargon <i>tanči</i>, both meaning 'maize'.</li>
<li><a href="https://csd.clld.org/parameters/963"><b>corn (4)</b></a>: a Caddoan loanword. Biloxi <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/bi-963-1-1"><i>ayé•ki</i></a>; Ofo <a href="https://csd.clld.org/values/of-963-1-1"><i>ačéki</i></a>. The Caddoan source is related to Pawnee <i>ré·ksu</i>; Arikara <i>ne·šuɂ</i>; Wichita <i>té·s?</i>; Caddo <i>kisiɂ</i>. The paper gives a Proto-Caddoan reconstruction of <i>*Ré·ki-</i>, “where <i>R</i> is an indeterminate sonorant covering the <i>n/r/t</i> correspondence set.” “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1264185">Comparative Caddoan</a>” has all these same cognates for 'corn', but declines to give a reconstruction, “The forms are apparently cognate, but the initial correspondence is otherwise not attested.”</li>
</ul>
<p>An Algonquian root <i>*-min</i> forms the ending of some maize words such as Cree ᒪᐦᑖᒥᐣ <i>mahtâmin</i> and Ojibwe <a href="https://ojibwe.lib.umn.edu/main-entry/mandaamin-na"><i>mandaamin</i></a>. J. Hammond Trumbull, who helped Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner with the <a href="/2008/09/gilded-age.html"><i>Gilded Age</i> chapter mottoes</a>, in his <a href="https://archive.org/details/natickdictionary0000trum/page/56/mode/2up"><i>Natick Dictionary</i></a>, said, “smaller fruits, such as corn, berries, nuts.” For maize, it gives <a href="https://archive.org/details/natickdictionary0000trum/page/184/mode/2up"><i>weatchimínneash</i></a>. Roger Williams's <i>Key into the Language of America</i> has <a href="https://archive.org/details/keyintolanguageo04will/page/100/mode/2up"><i>Ewáchimneaſh</i></a>. Eliot's Indian Bible used it for דָּגָן <a href="https://www.blueletterbible.org/lexicon/h1715/kjv/wlc/0-1/"><i>dāḡān</i></a>, where the KJV and Douay have “corn,” and the NIH “grain,” translating the end of <a href="https://biblehub.com/genesis/27-28.htm">Gen 27:28</a>, <a href="https://archive.org/details/mamussewunneetup00elio/page/n35/mode/2up">as</a> <i>kah wꝏnatit weathiminneath kah wine</i>. So <a href="https://archive.org/details/mamussewunneetup00elio/page/n103/mode/2up">too</a> <a href="https://biblehub.com/leviticus/2-14.htm">Lev 2:14</a>. This <a href="http://www.bigorrin.org/waabu7.htm">page</a> breaks down <i>weatchimmíneash</i> into “food growing in the field we eat.”</p>
<p>As noted in that same earlier Twain post here, in an 1872 paper, Trumbull collected <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/310262">forty versions</a> of the Lord's Prayer in Algonquian languages. One of the challenging aspects that he points out is what to do with “daily bread,” seeming to assume <i>quotidianum</i> for ἐπιούσιον, although I don't see how <i>supersubstantialem</i> would be any easier. A choice for <a href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-310262/page/n23/mode/2up">9. Abnaki</a> is <i>abannemena</i>, which he derives from <i>abaⁿn</i> 'baked' and that same <i>-men</i> 'corn; grain; small fruit'.</p>
<p>In another paper, published in the same volume, on English words derived from American Indian languages, Trumbull <a href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-310254/page/n6/mode/1up">also claimed</a> that <i>hominy</i> is from this <i>*min</i> root, “with an emphasizing aspirate.” In a similar 1902 paper on Algonquian words, Alexander Chamberlain <a href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-533199/page/n6/mode/1up">pointed to</a> W. W. Tooker (1895) having <a href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-658508/page/n5/mode/2up">questioned</a> the first part of that, deriving instead from <i>-ahäm</i> “he beats <em>or</em> pounds,” and <i>min</i>, “berry, fruit (maize).” But it gets better. In the <i>American Anthropologist</i> of Apr-Jun 1904, William Gerard wrote a <a href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-659076/page/n1/mode/2up">paper</a>, “Tapehanek Dialect of Virginia.” In Oct-Dec 1904, Tooker <a href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-659145/page/n1/mode/2up">contributed</a>, “Some Powhatan Names,” criticizing some of it. So, in Apr-Jun 1905, Gerard responded with “Some Virginia Indian Words.” Having got himself worked up, he has at the “delusion” that <a href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-659258/page/n3/mode/2up"><i>Chickahominy</i></a> contains the <i>-min</i> 'fruit' substantive. First, against M. Schele de Vere (of UVa, who had once written a somewhat favorable review of <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2918892">Volapük</a>; Gerard writes Devere), whose <i>Americanisms</i> had the “impossible word” <a href="https://archive.org/details/americanismsengl00scheuoft/page/42/mode/1up"><i>checahaminend</i></a>. And then at Tooker's:</p>
<blockquote>
The special affix or verb <i>-ahäm</i> implies “he beats or batters” the object <i>min'</i>, after the manner of the root-word or prefix <i>chick</i>
</blockquote>
Into which he throws a “(sic)” and summarizes:</p>
<blockquote>
It will be seen from this brief analysis that the combination under consideration does not constitute a word, but is simply a collocation of vowels and consonants.
</blockquote>
<p>Rather, he proposes that active transitive forms ending in <i>-mĕn</i> can be used as passive adjectives and so turn into inanimate substantives (that which is x'ed). This is more or less what the <a href="https://www.oed.com/dictionary/hominy_n?tab=etymology#1499108">OED</a> has, spelling it <i>-amən</i>. Gerard concludes:</p>
<blockquote>
Thus originated a term concerning the source and meaning of which there has been, up to the very present (the writing of these lines), more speculation than about any other Indian word that has entered the English language.
</blockquote>
<p>Cherokee ᏎᎷ <i>selu</i> is also the name of the first woman in an origin myth, her husband ᎧᎾᏘ Kanati is the hunter. Since it happens that the two glyphs more closely resemble their Roman model, I can imagine that someone running across this <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2dUCRXdSC9A">Word of the Week</a>, and not paying close attention to fonts, might wonder why the slide has 4M at the top.</p>
<p>Sturtevant includes a typically thorough <a href="https://archive.org/details/sturtevantsnotes00sturuoft/page/608/mode/1up">rundown</a> of all the various references to the spread of maize around the world. Although it does <a href="https://archive.org/details/sturtevantsnotes00sturuoft/page/612/mode/1up">include</a> Rafn's <a href="https://archive.org/details/voyagesofnorthme00slafiala/page/118/mode/2up">identification</a> of Hóp in Vinland in <a href="https://archive.org/details/winelandthegood00reevrich/page/118/mode/2up">Erik's saga</a> as on the Taunton River and the <i>sjálfsána hveitiakra</i> 'self-sowing wheatfields' there as maize. Which had been <a href="https://archive.org/details/winelandthegood00reevrich/page/174/mode/2up">challenged</a> right away (best guess was wild rice). To be fair, this was a climate in which Boston would permit a statue of Leif Erikson on Comm. Ave., looking West toward Norumbega, sculpted by an artist living in a Boston Marriage, and financed by a Harvard Chemistry Chair who made a fortune from an improved baking powder, such as one might use to leaven cornbread.</p>
<p>Moreover, as we will <a href="/2023/11/maize-2.html">next</a> see, the idea of Pre-Columbian maize is quite persistent.</p>
MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-34083353267339547782012-08-07T13:06:00.000-05:002013-08-10T21:25:40.290-05:00Truffle<p>Two years ago, in a <a href="http://www.languagehat.com/archives/003948.php">comment</a> at LanguageHat, <a href="http://abadguide.wordpress.com/">AJP Crown</a>
wondered whether there was interest in writing about truffles here.
Honestly, the challenge has not been material, but having time to put
it into some kind of coherent form.</p><p>These days, restaurants and frozen entrees offer dishes like mac-n-cheese that are <i>truffled</i>, that is, made with truffle oil. The LA food critic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Gold">Jonathan Gold</a> <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2004/oct/06/features11.g21">called</a> truffle oil, “the ketchup of the middle class” and a judge on a recent <i><a href="http://www.foodbeat.com/food-news/chopped-2012-season-12-episode-2-cory-bahr-wins-using-truffle-oil/">Chopped</a></i> proposed that it should be incinerated. In 2003, Jeffrey Steingarten wrote a piece for <i>Vogue</i>
provocatively titled, “Does truffle oil have anything to do with
truffles at all?” (I won't try to link to it online. A individual
subscription to <i>Vogue</i>'s online archive cost $1575 per year, so
I doubt anyone who reads this blog has one. The public library where I
read it still has all the print issues neatly shelved in cardboard
boxes.) He methodically samples various truffle-derived or -named
products. The best he can be say is that some are worse than others.
Mostly, truffle oil is vegetable oil with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,4-Dithiapentane">2,4 dithiapentane</a> (or, if you prefer, bis(methylthio)methane) added. And since <i>natural</i> or <i>naturale</i> is not a controlled designation, saying that does not mean anything about how the oil was made.</p><p>But what of real truffles?</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2012/08/truffle.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>Some classic European truffle dishes, meant to showcase Périgord black and Piedmont white truffles, are vegetarian. Such as an <a href="http://www.google.com/search?q=omelette+aux+truffes&tbm=isch">omelette aux truffes</a> or fresh <a href="http://www.google.com/search?q=pasta+al+tartufo&tbm=isch">pasta al tartufo</a>. Rossini's Salad from <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/36074">The Alice B. Toklas Cookbook</a></i>
is vegan: boiled potatoes, sliced truffles cooked in champagne, oil and
vinegar dressing. (Dumas (fils)'s “better version of it,” <a href="http://archive.org/stream/francillonpice00dumauoft#page/12/mode/2up">Salade Francillon</a>, is not. Toklas notes that, “Rossini was inordinately fond of truffles.” Indeed, he once <a href="http://books.google.com/books?pg=PA534&id=UeIV9G2EoAIC">claimed</a>,
«Je n'ai pleuré que trois fois en ma vie; la première, quand mon
premier opéra tomba, à la première representation; la seconde, lorsque
me trouvant en bateau, avec des amis, une dinde aux truffes, que nous
devions manger, vint à tomber dans l'eau; et la troisième, lorsque
j'entendis Paganini pour la première fois.» 'I have only cried three
times in my life: first, when my first opera bombed on opening night;
second, when finding myself in a boat with friends, a truffled turkey
that we intended to eat fell into the water; and third when I heard
Paganini for the first time.') Unfortunately, it seems that by the time
truffles have been flown over from Europe and driven up from New York
here to Boston, chefs feel obligated to only use them extravagantly as
a garnish on some meat dish. Which is likewise how they always seem to
show up on <i>Iron Chef</i>.</p><p>Food writers are just as extravagant. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Anthelme_Brillat-Savarin">Brillat-Savarin</a> <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5455011p/f198.image">called</a>
the truffle, “le diamant de la cuisine” 'the diamond of the kitchen'.
(If anything, truffles are rarer, but diamonds have a more effective
cartel.) Curnonsky <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pNssAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA45">quotes</a>
Rodolphe Bringer updating this to the 20th Century, «La truffe
participe du radium par sa précieuse variété et du diamant par les
difficultés qu'impose sa recherche.» 'Truffles share with radium their
precious varieties and with diamonds the difficulties in finding them.'
Alexandre Dumas (père) <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=evsGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1035#v=onepage&q&f=false">proposed</a>:</p><blockquote><p>Faire
l'histoire des truffes serait entreprendre celle de la civilisation du
monde, à laquelle, toutes muettes qu'elles sont, elles ont pris plus de
part que les lois de Minos, que les tables de Solon à toutes les
grandes époques des nations, à toutes les grandes lueurs que jetèrent
les empires; elles affluaient à Rome, de la Grèce et de la Libye; les
Barbares en passant sur elles les foulèrent aux pieds et les firent
disparaître, et d'Augustule jusqu'à Louis XV elles s'effacent pour
reparaître seulement au xviiie siècle et atteindre leur apogée sous le
gouvernement parlementaire de 1820 à 1848.</p><p>To relate the history
of truffles would be to undertake that of world civilization, in which,
though they are silent, they have had a greater part than the laws of
Minos or the tablets of Solon, through all the great epochs of the
nations, through all the great lights which shone on empires; they
flowed into Rome, from Greece and from Libya; the barbarians coming
upon them trampled them underfoot and made them disappear, from
Augustulus to Louis XV they fade out only to reappear in the 18th
Century and to attain their peak under the parliamentary government
from 1820 to 1848.</p></blockquote><p>This is a hard case to make.
There is a much more solid one for spices, which really did drive the
history of the world. Or, at least for the Americas and Europe, for
potatoes, as in Salaman's classic <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/453961">History and Social Influence of the Potato</a></i>. Truffles in fact made a brief appearance here before in a post on <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/07/potato.html">Potato</a>. And when the Spanish discovered potatoes, they compared them to <i>turmas</i> 'truffles'. The German <i>Kartoffel</i> retains the association.</p><p>A
good part of the history of truffles is the history of working out
where they come from and whether it is possible to control that.</p><p>For example, Pliny the Elder writes:</p><blockquote>et
quoniam a miraculis rerum coepimus, sequemur eorum ordinem, in quibus
vel maximum est aliquid nasci ac vivere sine ulla radice. tubera haec
vocantur undique terra circumdata nullisque fibris nixa aut saltem
capillamentis, nec utique extuberante loco, in quo gignuntur, aut rimas
sentiente. neque ipsa terrae cohaerent, cortice etiam includuntur, ut
plane nec terram esse possimus dicere neque aliud quam terrae callum. …
crescant anne vitium id terrae - neque enim aliud intellegi potest - ea
protinus globetur magnitudine, qua futurum est, et vivat necne, non
facile arbitror intellegi posse. putrescendi enim ratio communis est
cum ligno. lartio licinio praetorio viro iura reddenti in hispania
carthagine paucis his annis scimus accidisse mordenti tuber, ut
deprehensus intus denarius primos dentes inflecteret, quo manifestum
erit terrae naturam in se globari. quod certum est, ex his erunt, quae
nascantur et seri non possint. (<i>HN</i> <a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=PerseusLatinTexts&query=Plin.%20Nat.%2019.11&getid=0">19.11</a>)<p>de
tuberibus haec traduntur peculiariter: cum fuerint imbres autumnales ac
tonitrua crebra, tunc nasci et maxime tonitribus, nec ultra annum
durare, tenerrima autem verno esse. quibusdam locis accepta tantum
riguis feruntur, sicut mytilenis negant nasci nisi exundatione fluminum
invecto semine ab tiaris. est autem is locus, in quo plurima nascuntur.
… (<a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=PerseusLatinTexts&query=Plin.%20Nat.%2019.13&getid=0">19.13</a>)</p><p>As
we have here made a beginning of treating of the marvels of Nature, we
shall proceed to examine them in detail; and among them the very
greatest of all, beyond a doubt, is the fact that any plant should
spring up and grow without a root. Such, for instance, is the vegetable
production known as the truffle; surrounded on every side by earth, it
is connected with it by no fibres, not so much as a single thread even,
while the spot in which it grows, presents neither protuberance nor
cleft to the view. It is found, in fact, in no way adhering to the
earth, but enclosed within an outer coat; so much so, indeed, that
though we cannot exactly pronounce it to be composed of earth, we must
conclude that it is nothing else but a callous concretion of the earth.<br />…
Whether the truffle grows gradually, or whether this blemish of the
earth—for it can be looked upon as nothing else—at once assumes the
globular form and magnitude which it presents when found; whether, too,
it is possessed of vitality or not, are all of them questions, which,
in my opinion, are not easy to be solved. It decays and rots in a
manner precisely similar to wood.<br />It is known to me as a fact,
that the following circumstance happened to Lartius Licinius, a person
of prætorian rank, while minister of justice, a few years ago, at
Carthage in Spain; upon biting a truffle, he found a denarius inside,
which all but broke his fore teeth—an evident proof that the truffle is
nothing else but an agglomeration of elementary earth. At all events,
it is quite certain that the truffle belongs to those vegetable
productions which spring up spontaneously, and are incapable of being
reproduced from seed. (tr. <a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=PerseusLatinTexts&getid=1&query=Plin.%20Nat.%2019.11">Bostock & Riley</a>)</p><p>The
following peculiarities we find mentioned with reference to the
truffle. When there have been showers in autumn, and frequent
thunder-storms, truffles are produced, thunder contributing more
particularly to their developement; they do not, however, last beyond a
year, and are considered the most delicate eating when gathered in
spring. In some places the formation of them is attributed to water; as
at Mytilene, for instance, where they are never to be found, it is
said, unless the rivers overflow, and bring down the seed from Tiara,
that being the name of a place at which they are produced in the
greatest abundance. … (<a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=PerseusLatinTexts&getid=1&query=Plin.%20Nat.%2019.13">ibid.</a>)</p></blockquote><p>That
the right amount of moisture is needed for growth is by itself not
surprising. And could charitably be described as a fact, and as such a
basis for some similar French folk sayings:</p><blockquote><ul><li>Quand il pleut en août, les truffes sont au bout.</li><li>Quand il pleut à Saint Roch (le 16 août), les truffes naissent sur le roc.</li><li>Quand il pleut à la Saint Barthélemy (le 24 août), il y a des truffes à plein nid. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ScDVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA784">here</a> and <a href="http://forum.grossestruffes.com/viewtopic.php?p=13310&sid=435864b354e487c22ea1c93826b49746#p13310">here</a>)</li></ul><ul><li>When it rains in August, truffles come after.</li><li>When it rains on Saint Roch (<a href="http://saints.sqpn.com/saint-roch/">August 16</a>), truffles are born on the rock.</li><li>When it rains on Saint Bartholomew (<a href="http://saints.sqpn.com/saint-bartholomew-the-apostle/">August 24</a>), there is a nestfull of truffles.</li></ul></blockquote><p>But the thunderstorms and formation from bits of earth go beyond that. We will return to the matter of seeds below.</p><p>So too Plutarch: <i>Symposiaca</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZgUjAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA806#v=onepage&q&f=false">IV 2</a> is titled, “<span class="pv-greek">Διὰ τί τὰ ὕδνα δοχεῖ τῇ βροντῇ γίνεσθαι</span>” 'Why truffles seem to be produced by thunder'. Ancient Greek had several words for kinds of truffles, including <a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.13:4:141.LSJ"><span class="pv-greek">γεράνειον</span></a>, <a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.47:1:81.LSJ"><span class="pv-greek">μίσυ</span></a> and <a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.76:2:95.LSJ"><span class="pv-greek">ὕδνον</span></a>. Theophrastus describes (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=EREdkLyXq8MC&pg=PA454#v=onepage&q&f=false">Frag. 167</a>) μίσυ as a truffle growing near <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya">Cyrene</a> and it looks like a loanword. Manuscripts of his <i>Enquiry into Plants</i> have (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OuAW71tsKL0C&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false">I vi 5</a>):</p><blockquote><p><span class="pv-greek">πλὴν εἰ ὅλως ἔνια μὴ ἔχει, καθάπερ ὕδνον μύκης πύξος κράνιον.</span></p><p>except that some have no roots at all, such as the truffle mushroom boxwood cherry.</p></blockquote><p>The last two words are evidently corrupt. The usual conjectures (as in the Loeb linked above) are <span class="pv-greek">πέζις κεραύνιον</span>, so '<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovista_plumbea">bullfist</a> thunder' because of that association. But this seems like a folk etymology. It could have been <span class="pv-greek">γεράνειον</span>, which appears to derive from <a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.13:4:152.LSJ"><span class="pv-greek">γέρανος</span></a>, which normally means 'crane'. But the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymologicum_Magnum">Etymologicum Magnum</a></i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=dSpNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PT347#v=onepage&q&f=false">has</a> <span class="pv-greek">“γέρανος, ὁ ὄμβρος ὑπὸ κυρηναίων.”</span> Again, Cyrene was where <span class="pv-greek">μίσυ</span> came from. Now <a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.52:8:0.LSJ"><span class="pv-greek">ὄμβρος</span></a> is still usually 'thunderstorm'. But <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesychius_of_Alexandria">Hesychius</a> says that <a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.52:8:1.LSJ"><span class="pv-greek">ὄμβρος</span></a> is <a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.82:2:46.LSJ"><span class="pv-greek">χοιρίδιον</span></a>, which is a diminutive of <a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.82:2:67.LSJ"><span class="pv-greek">χοῖρος</span></a>
'porker'. This makes sense, since pigs are good at finding truffles;
better than dogs, but harder to train not to just eat what they find.
Emboldened by this, <a href="http://linguistlist.org/issues/21/21-3229.html">Werner Winter</a> <a href="http://www.jstor.org.ntnproxy.minlib.net/stable/291963">proposed</a> to derive <a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.76:2:95.LSJ"><span class="pv-greek">ὕδνον</span></a> from <a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.77:9:46.LSJ"><span class="pv-greek">ὗς</span></a> 'swine' as <span class="pv-xlit">*su-Adnom</span>. The latter part being something to do with eating, like Sanskrit अन्न <span class="pv-xlit">anna</span> 'food, esp. rice' < <span class="pv-xlit">*ed-no-m</span>, the root being the same as English <i>eat</i>. So, 'sow-eats'. In other words, it's possible that both Greek words are in the always surprising category, <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/1678180">Words You Never Knew Had Something to Do with Pigs</a>.</p><p>The truffles of the ancients were not today's important European truffles, but <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terfeziaceae">desert truffles</a> from North Africa. <a href="http://www.curculio.org/Juvenal/s05.html">Juvenal</a>
writes, “‘Tibi habe frumentum’ Alledius inquit, ‘o Libye, disjunge
boves, dum tubera mittas.’” 'Keep your grain, Alledius says, Oh Libya,
unyoke your oxen, while you send truffles.'</p><p>There is a <a href="http://www.ahadith.net/bukhari/book/76/chap/20">hadith</a>:</p><blockquote>الْكَمْأَةُ مِنَ الْمَنِّ، وَمَاؤُهَا شِفَاءٌ لِلْعَيْنِ<p><span class="pv-xlit">alkamʾāhu mina almanni، wamāʾūhā šifāʾ lilʿayni</span></p><p>The truffle is like manna, and its water is a cure for the eye.</p></blockquote><p>It is even proposed from time to time that the manna of the Israelites was truffles, for instance, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0269915X02006134">here</a>, as more sustaining than the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manna#Identifying_manna">usual proposals</a>.</p><p>On a state visit in 1998, Madeleine Albright <a href="http://www.apnewsarchive.com/1998/Albright-Hits-Wall-in-Saudi-on-Iraq/id-abd1fc14ace015646f60bf4c0b3106ff">received</a> “eleven huge boxes of Saudi-grown truffles” from Crown Prince Abdallah. In <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/13549">Madam Secretary</a></i>,
she says that under State Department rules she was allowed to keep them
because they were perishable. I believe at the time some opposition
politicians tried to make trouble by valuing them as though they were
the better known (to Americans and Europeans) kinds. A <i>Saudi Aramco World</i> <a href="http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200205/desert.truffles.galore.htm">article</a>
gives some more words in modern Arabic dialects and a recipe. As usual,
the print version has excellent photographs. However, the quote about
the their abundance under the Fatimid Caliphate may be not from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_William_Lane">Edward Lane</a>, but <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Lane-Poole">Stanley Lane-Poole</a>, unless the latter is in fact <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=6R4NAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA122">quoting</a> some work of his great uncle's that isn't online.</p><p>Typical of the entries one finds by searching around in the elder Lane's Lexicon is <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000183.pdf">one</a> for فَسَوَاتُ الضِّبَاعِ <span class="pv-xlit">fasawātu alḍḍibāʿi</span> 'hyena farts', “an appellation of <i>Certain truffles</i>, … and further that it is <i>a
plant of disagreeable odour, having a head which is cooked, and eaten
with milk; and when it dries, there comes forth from it what resembles</i> <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000190.pdf">وَرْس</a>.” (Which I think means they produce something like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_yellow">Indian yellow</a> dye.)</p><p><i>Tuber</i> and <i>terræ tuber</i> give many of the modern words for truffle in Western European languages: Italian <i>tartufo</i>, French <i>truffe</i> (earlier <i>trufle</i>), German <i>Trüffel</i>, Spanish <i>trufa</i>.
The origin is clear, though the exact phonological processes aren't;
and likewise it also somehow leads to obsolete and dialectical English <i>trub</i>. In the scheme of Wilkin's <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Essay_towards_a_Real_Character_and_a_Philosophical_Language">Philosophical Language</a></i>, trubs are (p. 70; <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:59027:46">EEBO</a>):</p><blockquote>Plants > Herbs Considered According to their Leaves > Imperfect Herbs > <i>Terrestrial</i> > <i>Moſt imperfect</i> (which ſeem to be of a ſpontaneous generation) > <i>Having no leaf</i> > <i>Without a Stem</i> (of a roundiſh figure ‖ growing either <i>in the ground</i>, being eſculent, & counted a great delicate:</blockquote><p>English also has the doublet <i>trifle.</i></p><p>I
presume that Jarðkeppur 'earth fungus' is a deliberate native Icelandic
invention and relatively recent. A number of older words elsewhere
refer to various hypogeous foods, including truffles and other funguses
along with and potatoes and other tubers. As often with food words, it
is unclear, at least to me, whether these referred to a variety of
things within a single speech community or to different things in
related ones. For example, Spanish <i>criadilla de tierra</i> and <i>turma de tierra</i>. <a href="http://woerterbuchnetz.de/DWB/?sigle=DWB&mode=Vernetzung&hitlist=&patternlist=&lemid=GG29868">Grimm</a> gives truffle as one of the meanings of <i>Grübling</i>, along with potatoes and <i><a href="http://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallus_impudicus.html">Phallus impudicus</a></i> (<span style="font-size: smaller;">for which Dr. Krokowski can only bring himself to give <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=v6cTAAAAMAAJ&q=Morchel,+%22in+deren+lateinischem+Namen+das+Beiwort+impudicus+vorkam%22">half</a> the name</span>); <a href="http://www.ub.uni-bielefeld.de/cgi-bin/nav_button.cgi?pfad=/diglib/adelung/grammati/2/jpeg/&seite=00000414.jpg">Adelung</a> says it is also a kind of apple. <a href="http://www.zedler-lexikon.de/blaettern/einzelseite.html?id=87476&bandnummer=08&seitenzahl=0790&supplement=0&dateiformat=1">Zedler</a> describes truffles in one of the entries for <i>Erdäpfel</i>. Among the synonyms there are <i>Hirschbrunst</i> 'hart rut' and <i>Hirschschwamme</i> 'hart fungus', the idea being that some kind of fungus is produced where stags had rutted. (In English, <a href="http://www.mushroomthejournal.com/greatlakesdata/Terms/deert79.html#deert79">deer truffle</a> is Elaphomyces, which deer <i>eat</i>.) A number of truffle web sites in Italy give <i><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=Hirstbrunst">Hirstbrunst</a></i>; if not a typo, perhaps that is the form in a German dialect spoken in Northern Italy.</p><p>Martial's <i>Epigrams</i> <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0506:book=13:poem=50">xiii l</a> is spoken by truffles:</p><blockquote>Rumpimus altricem tenero quae vertice terram<br />Tubera, boletis poma secunda sumus.<p>We who burst through the nurturing soil with our soft heads<br />Are truffles, of fruits second only to mushrooms.</p></blockquote><p>Petrarch's <a href="http://archive.org/stream/ilcanzonieredif00petrgoog#page/n60/mode/1up">ninth sonnet</a>
of the rime describes their formation from very little in Spring,
“grauido fa di ſe il terreſtro humore” 'makes earthly moisture pregnant
of itself'.</p><p>And not just poets. Fanciful ideas on the origin of fungi continued as scientific botany began to emerge. So, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieronymus_Bock">Hieronymus Bock</a>'s <i>De stirpium</i> (1552) (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nDCPb-dIeqYC&pg=PA942#v=onepage&q&f=false">p. 942</a>):</p><blockquote>Fungi,
ſicut & Tubera neque plantæ, neque radices, neque flores, neque
ſemina ſunt, ſed nihil aliud quam terræ, arborum, lignorum putridorum
aliarumque putrilaginum ſuperfluæ humiditates, id quod inde colligi
poteſt, quod omnes Fungi & Tubera: maxime ea quæ edendo ſunt, è
tonitrubus, & pluuioſo coeli ſtatu frequentius naſci ſoleant, …<p>Mushrooms
like truffles are neither plants, nor roots, nor flowers, nor seeds,
but but nothing other than the superfluous moisture of earth, trees,
rotting wood, and other rotting things, which can be gathered from the
fact that all mushrooms and truffles, especially the ones which are for
eating, grow most frequently when there is thundery and rainy weather, …</p></blockquote><p>The same passage is included almost verbatim in the 1671 edition of G. Bauhin's <i>Pinax</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=lBkOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA369">p. 369</a> and translated into German in a 1590 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Andrea_Mattioli">Mattioli</a> <i>Kreutterbuch</i> (<a href="http://docnum.u-strasbg.fr/u?/coll13,4446">p. 386</a>):</p><blockquote><span class="pv-fraktur">Alle
Schwämme ſeind weder Kreutter noch Wurtzeln/ weder Blumen noch Samen/
ſondern eittel uberflüſſige Feuchtigkeit der Erden/ der Bäume/ der
faulen Höltzer/ und anderer faulen dingen …</span></blockquote><p>In 1583, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giambattista_della_Porta">Giambattista della Porta</a> published <i>Phytognominica</i>,
in which there is a chapter, “Contra antiquorum opinionem plantas omnes
ſemine donatas eſſe” 'Contrary to the opinion of the ancients, all
plants are provided with seed'. In noting that he has found seeds
(spores, that is) from mushrooms and truffles, he writes (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=7sI6AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA367#v=onepage&q&f=false">p. 367</a>):</p><blockquote>Falſo
igitur Porphyrius Deorum filios fungos, & tubera dixit,quod ſine
ſemine prouenirent. Sic in tuberum corticibus, ut in cupreſſi pilulis,
nigrum etiã latet ſemen: ob id in ſiluis, ubi ſępius prodierint, &
computruerint, ſemper proveniunt.<p>Porphyrius therefore says falsely
that since they arise without seed mushrooms and truffles are the
children of the gods. So in truffles by shells, as in cypress by pills,
a black seed lies hidden: because of this they always come forth in
woods, where they have frequently been produced and rotted away.</p></blockquote><p>Nevertheless, Robert Hooke's 1665 <i>Micrographia</i> concluded (<a href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/u?/nat_hist,194">Obs. XX</a>):</p><blockquote>Next,
that as Muſhroms may be generated without ſeed, ſo does it not appear
that they have any ſuch thing as ſeed in any part of them; for having
conſidered ſeveral kinds of them, I could never find any thing in them
that I could with any probability gheſs to be the ſeed of it, ſo that
it does not as yet appear (that I know of) that Muſhroms may be
generated from a ſeed, but they rather ſeem to depend merely upon a
convenient conſtitution of the matter out of which they are made, and a
concurrence of either natural or artificial heat.</blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Pitton_de_Tournefort">Joseph Pierre de Tournefort</a> sensed the contradiction between what he was able to <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VTcjZ3gbhEMC&pg=RA1-PA51">observe</a>,
“ne produit ni fleurs ni graines sensibles” 'produce neither flowers
nor perceptible seeds' and what he had to assume was going on, “Suivant
les apparences ces filets blancs ne font autre chose que les graines ou
les germes développés des Champignons” 'According to their appearance,
these white threads are nothing other than the seeds or developed germs
of mushrooms'.</p><p>The birth of the science of mycology was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pier_Antonio_Micheli">Pier Antonio Micheli</a>'s 1729 <i>Nova plantarum genera juxta Tournafortii methodum disposita</i>. He carried out experiments, some of which were successful, trying to grow fungi in culture media from spores. His <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HxEWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA453#v=onepage&q&f=false">illustration</a> of truffles <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HxEWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA221#v=onepage&q&f=false">labels</a> them <i>semina</i>.</p><p>Giovanni
Bernardo Vigo, “Il Virgilio Piemontese,” wrote a book-length poem on
truffles and truffle hunters originally in Latin and translated in 1776
into Italian by the author. It appears that the <a href="http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb315780164/PUBLIC">BNF</a> has both versions bound together, but they have not scanned that into Gallica yet. There is a <a href="http://digital.casalini.it/9788854809116">modern edition</a> of just the Italian for only a few euros, though.</p><p>For balance, there is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustache_Deschamps">Eustache Deschamps</a>, who when he got sick from eating truffles, wrote a <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5127z/f123.image">ballade</a> against them where each stanza ends with, “De pis avoir que d'acès de tierçaine” 'worse than having a bout of tertian fever'.</p><p>Most books on truffles in English mention that truffles grow in England, perhaps citing <a href="http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Robinson,_Tancred_%28DNB00%29">Tancred Robinson</a>'s 1693 <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/101987">report</a> of them in Northamptonshire. Or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Bradley_%28botanist%29">Richard Bradley</a>'s <i>Dictionarium Botanicum</i> (1728) <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0rQrpmRnyagC&pg=PT466">entry</a>, “I gueſs, we have few old Woods in <i>England</i> without them.” Readers of <i>A Common Reader</i> may recall from the “<a href="http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks03/0300031h.html#C16c">Outlines</a>” essay on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Dorothy_Nevill">Lady Dorothy Nevill</a>
that, in addition to orchids, “she went into the question of funguses
and established the virtues of the neglected English truffle.” And
indeed that is <a href="http://archive.org/stream/cu31924028344327#page/n91/mode/1up">reported</a>
in the book by her son under review there — to the extent that Woolf''s
essay is a book review and not a meditation on upper- and
upper-middle-class, the aristocracy and the Walpoles, Darwins and
Stephens. And Lady Nevill's <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Xo8MAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131">note-book</a> records that she persuaded Lord Ashburton to hunt them beneath the beech trees and serve them for dinner at the <a href="http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/northington-grange/">Grange</a> in Hampshire. But what were truffles traditionally called in Hampshire and Northamptonshire? Prior's <i>On the Popular Names of British Plants</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=H3AHAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA535#v=onepage&q&f=false">digested</a> in Dickens's <i>All the Year Round</i>) only <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PvAYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA71#v=onepage&q&f=false">gives</a> Parkinson's <i>trubbes</i> and the presumably general <i>earth-balls</i>.</p><p>There are also truffles in North America, in particular in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuber_oregonense">Oregon</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuber_gibbosum">California</a>. Early <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Ed0UAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA239&pg=PA244">reports</a>
noted that they were as good as European truffles, but suggested that
they were too rare to be exploited as food. And that has only happened
in the last few years, with the increased popularity of both truffles
and local foods. If these truffles were known to Native Americans, I
have not found any mention of it and so no description of what they
might have been called. On the other hand, on the East Coast, there is <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UOwpAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA831">tuckahoe</a>, Indian bread or the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=j-U_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA721">Virginia truffle</a>. Jefferson <a href="http://www.masshist.org/thomasjeffersonpapers/notes/nsvviewer.php?nav=con&results=1&q=tuckahoe&page=21">noted</a> this as <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=aU0-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1183">Lycoperdon tuber</a></i>, which is to say he thought it was a truffle. (Although it is not a truffle and truffles are no longer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycoperdon">Lycoperdon</a>.) The Algonquian etymology is sometimes given as something about bread. But in a Smithsonian <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=NFcFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA690#v=onepage&q&f=false">report</a>, the author quotes <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hammond_Trumbull">J. Hammond Trumbull</a> — who gave Twain those <i>Gilded Age</i> <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2008/09/gilded-age.html">mottoes</a> — relating it to Cree <i>pitikwaw</i> 'made round', which seems to be the version given more often now.</p><p>This same <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfiporia_extensa">fungus</a> is found in China, where it is called 茯苓 <i>fu2 ling2</i>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Du_Halde">Du Halde</a> predictably <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=m7IWAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false">reported</a>:</p><blockquote>Il y a de nos Miſſionnaires qui ſont du pays où ſe trouvent les truffles en France, qui aſſurent que le <i>Pe fou ling</i> du <i>Chen ſi </i>eſt véritablement truffle.<p>There are some of our missionaries who are from the countryside in France where truffles are found, who assure us that the <i>Pe fou ling</i> of <i>Chen si</i> is indeed truffle.</p></blockquote><p>There are true truffles in China, with names including 塊菌 (simplified 块菌) Mandarin <i>kuai4 jun1, </i>Cantonese <i>faai3 kwan2</i>, literally 'lump fungus'. See the <i>Gastronomica</i> article by <a href="http://claimid.com/grenow">Gareth Renowden</a>, “<a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/gfc.2008.8.4.46">Truffle Wars</a>,”
on how these have gone from relative obscurity in Yunnan and Sichuan
out into the globalized food market since the 1980s and 90s. The same
species, <i>Tuber indicum</i>, is also native to India. A Colonel Elphinstone (I do not think this is any of the famous Elphinstones) <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=M-EJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA258">reported</a> them in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangra_district">Kangra</a> hills, growing under <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinus_roxburghii">pine</a> trees. And <a href="http://www.danielwinkler.com/mushroom_market_around_the_world.htm">here</a> is a note on something sold as “Tibetan truffles” in Munich's Viktualienmarkt last year and evidently either <i>T. indicum</i> or <i>T. himalayensis</i>.</p><p><b>Update</b>: See comment below from JosephK giving more comprehensive Chinese, Japanese and Vietnamese names. 松露菌 <i>song1 lu4 jun1</i>, literally 'pine dew fungus', appears to now be the more common name, particularly online. It originally referred to <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizopogon">Rhizopogon rubescens</a></i> and does confirm the pine tree habitat. The paper “<a href="http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-YOKE201106008.htm">块菌名实考证及其资源保护</a>”
by Wang Yun 王云 and Liu Pei-Gui 刘培贵 covers Chinese species and names
more carefully and points out that attempts to exactly match Chinese <i>Tuber</i> species with type specimens have so far been inconclusive. There is also this <a href="http://kejiao.cntv.cn/science/zoujinkexue/classpage/video/20110609/100465.shtml">documentary</a> from CCTV-10, in which Prof. Liu is featured prominently.</p><p>Given the discussion above on Greek words, we should also mention the Buddha's last meal, <i>sūkaramaddava</i>,
which appears to literally mean 'pig delicacy', that is, tender pork,
or possibly something that pigs eat. Other traditional theories are
bamboo shoots trodden on by pigs or a mushroom (<i>ahicchattaka</i> 'snake's umbrella') that grows where pigs have trampled the ground. But Rhys-Davids, who had only <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=rww9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA244#v=onepage&q&f=false">noted</a> the controversy in his <i>Milinda</i>, in his later translation of the <i>Dīgha Nikāya</i>, <a href="http://archive.org/stream/dialoguesofbuddh02davi#page/137/mode/1up">renders</a> it as “a quantity of truffles,” following Neumann who had found various other <i>sūkara- </i>fungus words. See the thorough discussion in Arthur Waley's, “<a href="http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-MEL/waley.htm">Did Buddha die of eating pork?</a>” Waley, at least when with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryl_de_Zoete">Beryl de Zoete</a>, was a vegetarian.</p><hr /><p>Finally, an <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=S0NAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA83">anecdote</a>:</p><blockquote>On
devait manger un dinde aux truffes à un dîner où se trouvait M. de
Buffon. Avant de se mettre à table, une vieille dame demanda au
naturaliste où venaient les truffes. « A vos pieds, madame »,
répondit-il. La dame ne comprend pas, M. de Buffon lui dit : « C'est
aux pieds des <i>charmes</i>. » On trouva charmans et le compliment et
celui qui le faisait. Vers la fin du repas, quelqu'un fit la même
question au savant, qui, ne faisant pas attention à la dame d'avant
dîner, dit ingénûment: « C'est aux pieds des <i>vieux charmes</i>. » La dame, qui l'entendit, ne le trouva plus si charmant.<p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Louis_Leclerc,_Count_of_Buffon">Buffon</a>
found himself at a dinner where truffled turkey was to be surved.
Before sitting down to the table, an elderly lady asked the naturalist
where truffles came from. “At your feet, Madame,” he answered. The lady
did not understand, so Buffon told her, “At the feet of <i>charmes</i>.”
She found both the compliment and the one who made it charming. Near
the end of the meal, someone put the same question to the savant, who,
not paying attention to the lady from before dinner, said ingenuously,
“At the feet of <i>old charmes</i>.” The lady, who heard him, did not find him so charming.</p></blockquote><p>The oldest reference to this story I have found is in the 1804 <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=r2MTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA305">L'improvisateur français</a></i>, which also carefully lays out the pun: <i>charmes</i> is both 'charms', that is, attractive (female) physical attributes, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpinus_betulus">European hornbeams</a>. A search also finds what appears to be an actual innocent <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cpc9AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA199">occurrence</a>. It shows up in English in a French language <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=X5dOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA191">reader</a>, translated in a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UtARAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA739"><i>Gentleman's Magazine</i></a> piece on truffles and <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=S9LgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA385">The Pleasures of the Table</a></i>'s chapter on them, as well as among “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=jIoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA172">Anecdotes of the Kitchen</a>” or “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=FvAmAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA110">After Dinner Talk</a>,” the latter from <i>The Epicure: A Journal of Taste</i>, from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S.S._Pierce">S.S. Pierce</a>, the Boston Brahmins' <a href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,839558,00.html">grocer</a>. I first read the joke in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=i3wEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA279"><i>The Pantropheon</i></a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Soyer">Alexis Soyer</a>
was Britain's, and perhaps the world's, first celebrity chef in a more
or less modern sense, who also wrote a cookbook for people of modest
means, set up soup kitchens for victims of the Irish famine, and worked
with Florence Nightingale on the diet of men recovering in hospital
from the Crimean War.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com19tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-29256776966530029262011-11-24T01:30:00.004-05:002011-11-26T11:11:12.391-05:00Green Bean<p>The supermarket was well stocked this week with fresh green beans. The side of the display had jars of gourmet fried onions — another postmodern reimagining of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_bean_casserole">boomer classic</a>. In keeping with the holiday tradition of assigning a writer to write about the current holiday's traditions, <a href="http://newsfeed.time.com/2011/11/24/green-bean-casserole-why-do-we-eat-it-just-once-a-year/">time.com</a> informs us that the association is an accident: the dish was invented in 1955 by Campbell's Soup and just happened to be in an AP feature. A quick check of the <a href="http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=8bctAAAAIBAJ&sjid=NoAFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5274,4035152">Google News Archive</a> finds that it was served with barbeque to the Shah of Iran and Empress Soraya that year in Florida. Since <a href="http://www.parstimes.com/history/shah_us/#Eisenhower">that visit</a> was in January, it must have actually been invented at the start of the year and under other circumstances might have ended up a Nowruz standard. A slightly fancier version in Sylvia Lovegren's entertaining <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/144690">Fashionable Food: Seven Decades of Food Fads</a>,</i> adding sliced almonds, is from a 1961 Campbell's ad.</p><p>I am not much of one for holidays: I use the quiet time to catch up on work. In my experience, Thanksgiving is the hardest day to find a restaurant open (and serving a regular menu). On Christmas, there is Halal or Kosher (when it isn't Saturday), or one can eat Chinese food with all the Jewish people.</p><p>As it happens, our two favorite green bean dishes are Chinese.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2011/11/green-bean.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>Green Beans with Chinese Cheese, that is, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_beans">Long Beans</a> with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermented_bean_curd">Fermented Bean Curd</a>. I believe we had this at the House of Toy on Hudson Street, which was a popular destination for hackers. Here is what <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_AI_Lab#Stanford_Artificial_Intelligence_Laboratory">SAIL</a>'s YUMYUM <a href="http://www.saildart.org/1979/01/28/YUMYUM%5BP,DOC%5D">file</a> says:</p><blockquote>My favorite Chinese restaurant in Boston area, best sweet and sour in Boston area [<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Salamin_(mathematician)">ES</a>-5/77]. Favorites are ginger and fish meat. Best vermicelli (bean thread) dishes in Boston [<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_L._Steele,_Jr.">GLS</a>-78].</blockquote><p>We also called them Fu-yi Green Beans, and that is what we still call the dish at home, where we like to make it with the jars of fermented bean curd that have chili added. It's possible that was the name on the menu, or something someone in our party knew from elsewhere. If so, the name in Cantonese would be something like 腐乳豆角 <i>fu6 jyu5 dau6 gok3</i> as <a href="http://www.haodou.com/recipe/162746">here</a>. But memory is a tricky thing, and I would welcome corrections from Bostonians who might have saved a menu from back then. Due to changing demographics in Chinatown, I have not seen this dish around in some time, but perhaps I have just missed it. William Shurtleff, America's soy food evangelist, has a <a href="http://www.soyinfocenter.com/HSS/fermented_tofu1.php">page</a> on the history of fermented bean curd.</p><p>You had to go across the river to Cambridge to get Kan Shao Green Beans at Joyce Chen's Small Eating Place (I have menus here from the larger place near Fresh Pond). Regular green beans are 四季豆 <i>si4 ji4 dou4</i>, 'four seasons beans', because they are available year round. Strictly speaking, there are two related ways of cooking possible, and at least in America, restaurants are not always careful to distinguish them. Mandarin 乾燒 (simplified 干烧) <i>gan1 shao1</i> / Cantonese 乾炒 <i>gon1 caau2</i> is ordinary dry-cooked. 乾煸 <i>gan1 bian3</i> involves first deep frying the food and then dry-frying it a second time with less oil. This produces Szechwan-style shriveled green beans. They are traditionally made with pork and/or dried shrimp, but those can be left out to make it vegan.</p><p>This is where the nostalgia becomes relevant to this blog. <a style="text-decoration:none" href="http://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=4E7E"><span style="font-size:larger">乾</span></a> has an ordinary simplified form <a style="text-decoration:none" href="http://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=5E72"><span style="font-size:larger">干</span></a>. But what of <a style="text-decoration:none" href="http://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=7178"><span style="font-size:larger">煸</span></a>, a character only used in a regional style of cooking? Most printed menus here substitute just the phonetic <i>bian</i> part, <a style="text-decoration:none" href="http://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=6241"><span style="font-size:larger">扁</span></a>. (The full character has the fire radical ⽕, as expected of a cooking word.) I believe that is a limitation of the technology, that that is all that is available to the printer. (Though I would welcome suggestions of other reasons I may have overlooked.) In the case of Sichuan Garden in Brookline Village, the <a href="http://sichuangardenrestaurant.com/cuisine">online menu</a> has 干煸四季豆, but the printed one has 干扁四季豆.</p><p>Here are some Boston-area menus in our files and an <a href="http://web.mit.edu/lipoff/www/menus/">online collection</a> showing this and the variety of English descriptions for the restaurant's interpretation of the dish:</p><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGqXiwXm2Vd36St597DFqUxPXlQaAHw9Ve5H0Vib_FtjbAovnp2Oz3ilw49F4Na6DtafEOlRte5VK0KtA5LPYsblTqNR-uKUzVoIXGXPcsX9yBgyV478PKEVU13NNXTLsDPVVCaigbPVA/s1600/gan-bian-1.png"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 318px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGqXiwXm2Vd36St597DFqUxPXlQaAHw9Ve5H0Vib_FtjbAovnp2Oz3ilw49F4Na6DtafEOlRte5VK0KtA5LPYsblTqNR-uKUzVoIXGXPcsX9yBgyV478PKEVU13NNXTLsDPVVCaigbPVA/s400/gan-bian-1.png" border="0" alt="扁" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5679195611445885634" /></a><p>And here are the handful of newer, Szechwan-style restaurants that manage even in their printed menu:</p><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiUB_Jp7DCB802D2BczjxWVzYmCzTifPHv7KZnZZ5jteCyMOQ5WLBLSzu2vDU2q1vrcFFe7zfsMV9BEkaRWW_828JUZC52nBk2NJfPFmR1XFa84eKNGpxalNszQjbTlo4v0qx7GZ9BSOAM/s1600/gan-bian-2.png"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 183px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiUB_Jp7DCB802D2BczjxWVzYmCzTifPHv7KZnZZ5jteCyMOQ5WLBLSzu2vDU2q1vrcFFe7zfsMV9BEkaRWW_828JUZC52nBk2NJfPFmR1XFa84eKNGpxalNszQjbTlo4v0qx7GZ9BSOAM/s400/gan-bian-2.png" border="0" alt="煸" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5679188158197336418" /></a> <p>Of course, it's not like the more complicated character was unknown here. <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/169652"><i>The Good Food of Szechwan</i></a> (1974; printed in Japan) has (p. 95) Gan-bian Si-ji-dou 乾煸四季豆 Dry-fried String Beans.</p><p>In some ways, the Reading Chinese Menus entries at the Adventures with Kake blog are like this century's version of <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/347985">The Eater's Guide to Chinese Characters</a></i>: more personal, more interactive, and always a work in progress. She has an <a href="http://kake.dreamwidth.org/35523.html">post</a> there on 乾煸四季豆 — gān biān sì jì dòu — dry-fried green beans.</p><p>In English, <i>haricots verts</i> are longer, thinner green beans that are tender enough to be eaten without breaking off the ends. A recipe in <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/997716/">Red Hot and Green</a></i> for “poached tofu and green beans with wasabi glaze” (p. 85) makes use of this to spear the tofu with the green beans. We've found this dish to be a good choice for pot lucks.</p><p>In French, <i>haricots verts</i> are just 'green beans' and <i>haricot</i> (some kinds of) 'bean'. One would expect to <a href="http://jiawei-iris.com/menu.pdf">find</a> “Haricots verts frits aux piments 干煸四季豆.”</p><p>The etymology of <i>haricot</i> is uncertain, with contenders from three different continents.</p><p><i>Haricot</i> is a pair of homonyms: <i>haricot de mouton</i> is a lamb stew, from a verb <i>harigoter</i> meaning to cut into small pieces. The <i>Ménagier de Paris</i> (ca. 1393) has <i>Hericot de mouton</i> (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k831118/f150.image.r=.langEN">II, 148</a>). François Génin derives (<a href="http://www.archive.org/stream/rcrationsphi01gnuoft#page/50/mode/1up"><i>Récréations philologiques</i>, I. p. 50</a>) this <i>haricot</i> from Latin <i>aliquot</i> 'a few' and Littré (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5406698m/f1046.image">s.v.</a>) quotes the <a href="http://www.appl-lachaise.net/appl/article.php3?id_article=1488">Comtesse de Bassanville</a> as proposing Arabic <i>hali-gote</i> (I'm not sure what this is). More <a href="http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/haricot">sensible sources</a> derive <i>harigoter</i> from Old Low Franconian <i>*hariôn</i> 'to mess up', related to the English verb <i>harry</i>.</p><p>The idea that <i>haricot</i> beans are so-called because they came to be used in <i>haricot</i> stew is a bit far-fetched, particularly since beans do not seem to be a common ingredient. Even more so is Alexandre Dumas (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas">père</a>) 's claim that the stew <i>originally</i> was meat and beans, until “l'un des deux ingrédients a été détrôné par les navets” 'one of the ingredients was dethroned by turnips' (<i>Grand dictionnaire de cuisine</i>, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k125701k/f636.image.r=.langEN">s.v.</a>). More likely is that the form of the earlier stew word influenced the later bean word.</p><p><i>Haricot</i> beans (there will be no more about meat) first appear in the mid-17th century. Before then, such beans were <i>faséoles</i>, from Latin <a href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.14:2686.lewisandshort">Phaseolus</a> (now the name of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaseolus">genus</a>), like English <i>fasels</i>. So, in Rabelais, when the Panurge speaks in praise of cod-pieces, listing some that occur in nature:</p><blockquote>Poix, Febues, Faſeolz, Noix, Alberges, Cotton, Colocynthes, Bled, Pauot, Citrons, Chaſtaignes (<a href="http://iris.lib.virginia.edu/rmds/gordon/gordonimages/Gordon1552_R258/source/0080_pg32.html">III. viii.</a>)<p>Peaſe, Beans, Faſels, Pomegranates, Peaches, Cottons, Gourds, Pumpeons, Melons, Corn, Lemons, Almonds, Walnuts, Filberts, and Cheſtnuts (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=qetYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA44#v=onepage&q&f=false">tr. Urquhart & Motteux</a>)</p></blockquote><p>And when Epistemon criticizes the choice of aphrodisiacs as Lenten foods:</p><blockquote>febues, poix, phaſeols, chiches, oignons, noix, huytres, harans, ſaleures, garon, ſalades toutes compoſees d herbes veneriques (<a href="http://iris.lib.virginia.edu/rmds/gordon/gordonimages/Gordon1564_R25n2/source/0139_pg63v.html">V. xxix.</a>)<p>Beans, Peaſe, Phaſels, or Long-Peaſon, Chiches, Onions, Nuts, Oyſters, Herrings, Saltmeats, <i>Garum</i>, (a kind of Anchovy) and Sallads, wholly made up of venereous Herbs (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=DO1YAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA133#v=onepage&q&f=false">tr. Urquhart & Motteux</a>)</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_de_Bonnefons">Bonnefons</a>'s <i>Le jardinier françois</i> (1651) has:</p><blockquote>Les petits Féves, de <span style="font-variant:small-caps">Haricot</span>, ou <span style="font-variant:small-caps">Callicot</span>, ou bien <span style="font-variant:small-caps">Feves Rottes</span>, ſont de deux eſpeces, de Blanches, & de Collorées; parmy leſquelles il y en a auſſi de Blanches: mais plus petits & rondes, que ne ſont pas les grandes Blanches. (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k105504m/f228.image.r=.langEN">p. 207</a>)<p>Small beans, <i>haricot</i> beans, or <i>Calicut</i> beans, or even <i>Rottes</i> beans are of two kinds: the white and the colored, among them there are also some white ones, but smaller and rounder, which are not the big white ones.</p></blockquote><p>The problems with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kozhikode_(city)">കോഴിക്കോട്</a> are that substantial amounts of beans did not come to Europe from India and that the <i>haricot</i> form occurs a couple decades before.</p><p>From Bernard Figuier's 1628 French translation of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_Mendes_Pinto">Fernão Mendes Pinto</a>'s <i>Peregrinaçam</i>:</p><blockquote>arroz, açucar, feijoẽs, cebollas (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ErgbAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA304#v=twopage&q&f=false">modern reprint</a>)<p>vn demy sac de riz, vn peu de farine, des feves d'aricot, des oignons (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Wz0000o1yIQC&pg=PA501#v=onepage&q&f=false">p. 501</a>)</p><p>Rice, Sugar, French Beans, Onyons (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=NIUBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA256#v=onepage&q&f=false">tr. Cogan</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The <i>h</i> appears in 1640, in Jacques Bouton's <i>Relation de l'establissement des François depuis l'an 1635 en l'isle de la Martinique</i>, “que quelque-vns appellent pois de Rome, autres des feſoles, autres haricots” 'which some call Roman peas, others fasels, others <i>haricot</i>' (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k111221c/f57.image.r=.langEN">p. 50</a>). And in <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Oudin">Antoine Oudin</a>'s French-Italian dictionary, <i>Recherches italiennes et françoises</i>, “Haricot, febves de haricot, <i>faggiuoli</i>” (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k50819m/f1206.image.r=.langEN">p. 293</a>). Likewise in his 1645 French-Spanish <i>Tresor des deux langues espagnolle et françoise</i>, “<i>Haricot, febves de haricot</i>, faſeoles.” (earlier <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=BHpFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PT300#v=onepage&q&f=false">edition</a> in Google Books; later <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k123762g/f269.image.r=.langEN">edition</a> in Gallica). These works are posthumous extensions of his father <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Oudin">César</a>'s work. Some sources, including Wikipedia, say that <i>haricot</i> is also in their 1640 <i>Curiositez françoises</i>, but I cannot find it <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k50817x/f273.image.r=.langEN">there</a>; perhaps it's under a different headword. Also notable is that the 1607 French-Spanish had “Faſol, legumbre, <i>Phaſeole, vne eſpece de pois</i>” (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k118570k/f280.image.r=.langEN">here</a>) and the 1627<i> Thresor des trois langues, espagnole, françoise, et italienne </i>had “Faſól, <i>Phaſeole, vne eſpece de pois</i>, vna ſorte de ceſi” (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k50820t/f278.image.r=.langEN">p. 278</a>).</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Bescherelle">Bescherelle</a>'s <i>Dictionnaire national</i> derived (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k50452b/f106.image.r">II. p. 103</a>) <i>haricot</i> from a Celtic root <i>har</i> meaning seed. De Candolle's theory that <i>haricot</i> came from Italian <i>araco</i>, Latin <i>Aracus niger</i>, a name for the vetch <i><a href="http://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Lathyrus_ochrus">Lathyrus ochrus</a></i>, (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VhYAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA274#v=onepage&q&f=false">French</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=kqcMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA342#v=onepage&q&f=false">English</a>) did not gain any traction.</p><p>And, finally, there is Nahuatl <i>ayacotli</i>, defined by <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=aW8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA3-IA2#v=onepage&q&f=false">Molina</a> as “fiſoles gordos” 'fat beans'. The first to suggest this etymology appears to have been the Parnassian poet <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9-Maria_de_Heredia">José-Maria de Heredia</a>. In an 1879 translation of Bernal Díaz del Castillo's <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_verdadera_de_la_conquista_de_la_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a">Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España</a></i>, Heredia rendered “friſoles, y chia” (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=BQhCAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA2-PA73-IA2#v=onepage&q&f=false">p. 70</a>) as “des haricots, de la chia” and added this endnote (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=5pQVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA415#v=onepage&q&f=false">p. 415</a>):</p><blockquote>Il est remarquable que le mot <i>haricot</i>, en mexicain, <i>ayacotli</i>, n'apparaît, dans la langue français, qu'aux dernières années du XVI<sup>e</sup> siècle. On disait fèves ou faseols. Si le mot de haricot nous fût venu en passant par l'Espagne, comme <i>ouragan</i>, <i>maïs</i>, <i>savane</i>, <i>canot</i> et tant d'autres, le doute ne serait guère possible. Mais on n'en trouve pas trace en espagnol. Les corsaires, flibustiers ou colons français de la Floride et du Mississippi ne l'auraient-ils pas directement introduit? Ce sont de bien vagues suppositions suggérées pas une ressemblance de mots singulière. L'étymologie de <i>aliquot</i> que donne Génin, dans ses <i>Récréations philologiques</i>, nous paraît peu plausible, appliquée au mot haricot pris dans le sens de fève.<p>It is remarkable that the word <i>haricot</i>, in Mexican <i>ayacotli</i>, did not appear in French, until the last years of the 16th Century. One said <i>fèves</i> or <i>faseols</i>. If the word <i>haricot</i> had come to us through Spain, like <i>hurricaine</i>, <i>maize</i>, <i>savannah</i>, <i>canoe</i> and so many others, doubt would hardly be possible. But there is no trace of it in Spanish. Couldn't French pirates or colonists from Florida or Mississippi have introduced it directly? These are just vague suppositions suggested by a singular resemblance of the words. The etymology from <i>aliquot</i> which Génin gives in his <i>Récréations philologiques</i> (see above), hardly seems plausible to us, applied to the word <i>haricot</i> in the sense of bean.</p></blockquote><p>Mexican Spanish does in fact have <i>ayocote</i> for <a href="http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaseolus_coccineus">some kinds of beans</a>, but there are no intermediate forms there and certainly not on the Continent. This is the main problem: new words do not get introduced in place of existing ones with no evidence at all by lone pirates.</p><p>A number of later sources get the story of Heredia's discovery though a piece by the entomologist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Henri_Fabre">Jean Henri Fabre</a> on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bean_weevil">bean weevil</a>: “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UtNyjqBcs3EC&pg=PA48#v=onepage&q&f=false">Le Bruche des Haricots</a>” / “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=GvpRAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA282#v=onepage&q&f=false">An Invader — the Haricot-weevil</a>.” Fabre relates how a neighbor lent him a copy of the <i>Noël</i> of the <i>Annales politiques et littéraires</i> for 1901, titled <i>Les Enfants jugés par leurs pères</i>, where there is a conversation between “the master-sonneteer and a lady journalist,” which Fabre then quotes extensively. Gallica does not have the Christmas numbers of this journal, and I have not found it elsewhere (except for sale with expensive shipping — if some reader has access to a copy, please let me know what it has), but based on the advertisements (60 centimes) in the <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5852616v/f6.image.langEN">regular</a> <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58526304/f16.image.langEN">numbers</a>, I believe it was in fact 1900 and that the format of the “conversation” was letters from the Immortals in response to their correspondent Aimée Fabrègue (who had been an editor of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Fronde">La Fronde</a></i>), the issue's complete title being, “<i>Les Enfants jugés par leurs pères</i> ou en autres termes, <i>Les Académiciens jugés par eux-mêmes</i>.” So I am not entirely certain of the details, but will assume Fabre has the gist of it. Heredia says that he found<i> ayacot </i>while studying the beautiful 16th century natural history book, Hernandez's <i>De Historia plantarum novi orbis</i>. As has come up here before, the surviving work and translations of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Hern%C3%A1ndez_de_Toledo">Francisco Hernández</a> are a mess. But I believe the book in question is <i>De Historia Plantarum Novae Hispaniae</i>. This does not mention <i>ayacot(li)</i> directly, but does have a chapter (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zX6pXnGTnowC&pg=PA129#v=onepage&q&f=false">II. lv.</a>) on <i>ayecocimatl</i> < <i>ayeco(tli)</i> + <i>cimatl</i>, an edible root of a bean plant, which also mentions <i>etl</i>, the general word for 'bean'. Since the very next chapter is on the edible root <i>cimatl</i>, it would not be hard to work out that <i>ayaco(t)</i> was the bean part and without the <i>-tli</i>, the resemblance is even more evident. Heredia then tells how at a party of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston_Paris">Gaston Paris</a>'s he met a <i>savant</i> who only knew him as the solver of the <i>haricot</i> etymology, and not as a poet.</p><p>Gaston Paris had indeed championed Heredia's idea, citing his 1879 note in a footnote to a paper the following year on Mauritian Creole, “Si, comme il est fort probable, <i>haricot</i> est le mexicain <i>ayacotli</i> …, le créole a conservé la bonne prononciation.” 'If, as is very probably, <i>haricot</i> is the Mexican <i>ayacotli</i>, Creole has preserved the right pronunciation.' (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=FGUoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA575#v=onepage&q&f=false"><i>Romania</i>, IX. p. 575</a>).</p><p>In 1880, a French translation of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn">Sahagún</a> was published, and where he mentioned <i>ayecotli</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=jxOEjEsttwEC&pg=PA36#v=onepage&q&f=false">xxi. p. 36</a>), Remi Simeon added a footnote (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=keUUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA44#v=onepage&q&f=false">p. 44</a>) giving the variant <i>ayacotli</i>, the Spanish <i>ayacote</i>, the general word <i>etl</i>, and <i>exotl</i> for haricot vert, but did not propose any direct relationship.</p><p><span class="addmd"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Rolland">Eugène Rolland</a>, in 1903, before proposing his own hybrid of two older theories, namely, “Cette fève se mange souvent avec le <i>haricot de mouton</i> …; on a donc transformé <i>fève de calicot</i> en <i>fève de haricot</i> par fausse étymol. pop.” 'This bean is often eaten with <i>haricot de mouton</i>, so that <i>Calicut bean</i> is transformed into <i>haricot bean</i> by folk etymology' (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?pg=PA160&lpg=PA160&id=fMInAAAAYAAJ#v=onepage&q&f=false">Flore populaire, IV. p. 160</a>), notes (indirectly) a 1897 paper by Bonnet claiming that <i>haricot</i> comes from Mexican <i>ayacotl</i>. In fact, that <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2OJEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA55#v=onepage&q&f=false">paper</a>, about the question of beans in the Old World before the discovery of the New, says, “Je ne dirai rien de l'étymologie du mot Haricot sur laquelle on a tant discuté” 'I will not say anything about the etymology of <i>haricot</i>, about which there has been so much discussion'.</span></p><p><span class="addmd">Kristoffer Nyrop, in a brief note in </span><i>Grammaire historique de la langue française</i> (1913, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=FwUTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA338#v=onepage&q&f=false">IV. 464. p. 338</a>) and then a longer monograph, <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zhIoAQAAIAAJ">Histoire étymologique de deux mots français (haricot, parvis)</a></i> (1918) promoted the <i>ayacotli</i> derivation and tried to explain how it might have made it to France. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Weekley">Weekley</a>'s <i>Etymological Dictionary</i> (<a href="http://www.archive.org/stream/cu31924027421712#page/n370/mode/1up">I. p. 690</a>; popular in a Dover <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/2547417">reprint</a> from the '60s) dismissed it on account of the earlier <i>haricot</i> word from before the discovery of America. In a 1940 paper on “Esigenze linguistiche del mercato” (<i>Vox Romanica</i>, V; unfortunately issues that old are in storage at the library nearby that has the journal), Vittorio Bertoldi argued against <i>ayacotli</i> and in favor of <i>callicot</i>. In a 1956 paper, “The uniqueness and complexity of etymological solutions” (<a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0024384155900164">pay-wall</a>; Google Books <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=R-8W0B5CDCkC&lpg=PA239&pg=PA239#v=onepage&q&f=false">preview</a>), the etymologist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakov_Malkiel">Yakov Malkiel</a> used <i>haricot</i> as an example, due to “the ebb and flow of endorsements and the inherent incompatibility of <i>ayacotli</i> in the New World and <i>Calicut</i> in India.”</p><p>I don't know the stand of more modern specialized works (and would welcome pointers). The OED still has “Origin uncertain: see Littré,” while we wait for them to make their way around to the H's. The <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/15158">Oxford dictionary of English Etymology</a></i> has “perh. – Aztec <i>ayacotli</i>.” The Petits <i>Robert</i> and <i>Larousse</i> stick with French <i>harigoter</i>. French Wikipedia, s.v. <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haricot#Divers_noms_du_haricot">Haricot</a> and <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaseolus#.C3.89tymologie">Phaseolus</a>, is somewhat uncommitted, listing some of the alternatives given above.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-70480628698696939542011-08-12T19:38:00.003-05:002013-10-26T22:40:13.555-05:00Vejeterianz<p>C. S. Lewis resolved his adolescent struggles with theodicy
through the conservative Christianity of Chesterton, Belloc and so on.
With a convert's zeal, he then promoted an unalloyed form, which
Chesterton called <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodoxy_%28book%29">Orthodoxy</a></i>
and Lewis <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere_Christianity">Mere
Christianity</a></i>. He has his demon, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screwtape_Letters">Screwtape</a>,
write in letter #25:</p>
<blockquote>What we want, if men become Christians at all, is to
keep them in the state of mind I call 'Christianity And'. You know —
Christianity and the Crisis, Christianity and the New Psychology,
Christianity and the New Order, Christianity and Faith Healing,
Christianity and Psychical Research, Christianity and Vegetarianism,
Christianity and Spelling Reform. If they must be Christians let them
at least be Christians with a difference.</blockquote>
<p>The last two are within the purview of this blog and this
short post (<small>unfortunately time does not permit one of the
longer, more standard, ones</small>) will touch on their
intersection. Religion is not within it, at least primarily, so they
will be taken with or without, though more often without, the
Christianity.</p>
<div class="post-summary"><a href="/2011/08/vejeterianz.html#rest">Read More</a></div>
<div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a>
<p>A few letters back, in #22, Screwtape, having turned himself
into centipede, dictates through his amanuensis Toadpipe:</p>
<blockquote>A more modern writer — someone with a name like Pshaw
— has, however, grasped the truth. Transformation proceeds from within
and is a glorious manifestation of that Life Force which Our Father
would worship if he worshipped anything but himself.</blockquote>
<p>This is an allusion to George Bernard Shaw's mystical version
of Bergson's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Evolution_%28book%29">Creative
Evolution</a>. Clause 4 of Shaw's will <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=A3w4AAAAIAAJ&q=%22As+my+religious+convictions+and+scientific+views%22#search_anchor">begins</a>:</p>
<blockquote>As my religious convictions and scientific views
cannot at present be more specifically defined than as those of a
believer in Creative Evolution ...</blockquote>
<p>Due to a typo by a reporter or telegraph operator,
contemporary accounts in <i><a href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,813999,00.html">Time</a></i>
and <i>The New York Times</i> (<a href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50911FB3A5F177A93C6AB178AD95F448585F9">Nov.
24, 1950</a>; <a href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F5061EFE3E5E147B93C7AB178AD95F448585F9">Nov.
25</a>) reported that Shaw believed in “Creative Revolution.” And
someone has dutifully copied this into his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw#Religion">Wikipedia</a>
entry! The <i>Times</i> issued a correction on <a href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0D14FC3E5E147B93CBAB178AD95F448585F9">Nov.
29</a>:</p>
<blockquote>An error of transmission in a dispatch from London
led to an error in an editorial on this page last Saturday commenting
on a passage from the will of George Bernard Shaw. Shaw wrote: “My
religious convictions and scientific views cannot at present be more
specifically defined than as those of a believer in creative
evolution.” The final word came through the ether as “revolution”
instead of the “evolution” made famous in the preface to “Back to
Methuselah” and elsewhere.</blockquote>
<p>Lewis's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Trilogy">Space
Trilogy</a> is influenced by <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back_to_Methuselah">Back
to Methuselah</a></i> while intended as a critique of
Shaw's religion. (See, for instance, “<a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/40682353">Shaw and C.S.
Lewis's Space Trilogy</a>.”)</p>
<p>But what is a main concern here is <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=A3w4AAAAIAAJ&q=%22To+institute+and+finance+a+series%22#search_anchor">Clause
35</a>:</p>
<blockquote>I devise and bequeath all my real and personal estate
not otherwise specifically disposed of by this my Will or any Codicial
hereto and all property over which I have general power of appointment
unto my Trustee Upon trust that my Trustee shall (subject to the power
of postponing the sale and conversion thereof hereinafter contained)
sell my real estate and sell call in or otherwise convert into money as
much as may be needed of my personal estate (other than any copyrights
which as provided by Clause 7 of this my Will are not to be sold) to
increase the ready monies of which I may be possessed at my death to an
amount sufficient to pay my funeral and testamentary expenses and debts
estate duty legacy duty and all the duties payable on my death in
respect of my estate or the bequests hereby made free of duty (other
than testamentary expenses) and the legacies bequeathed by this my Will
or any Codicil hereto or to make such other payments or investments or
change of investments as in his opinion shall be advisable in the
interest of my estate and shall invest the residue of such monies in
manner hereinafter authorised And shall stand possessed of the said
residuary trust moneys and the investments for the time being
representing the same and all other investments for the time being
forming part of my residuary estate (herein called my Residuary Trust
Funds) and the annual income thereof Upon the trusts hereby declared of
and concerning the same.
<p>(1) To institute and finance a series of inquiries to
ascertain or estimate as far as possible the following statistics (a)
the number of extant persons who speak the English language and write
it by the established and official alphabet of 26 letters (hereinafter
called Dr. Johnson's Alphabet); (b) how much time could be saved per
individual scribe by the substitution for the said Alphabet of an
Alphabet containing at least 40 letters (hereinafter called the
Proposed British Alphabet) enabling the said language to be written
without indicating single sounds by groups of letters or by diacritical
marks, instead of by one symbol for each sound; (c) how many of these
persons are engaged in writing or printing English at any and every
moment in the world; (d) on these factors to estimate the time and
labour wasted by our lack of at least 14 unequivocal single symbols;
(e) to add where possible to the estimates of time lost or saved by the
difference between Dr. Johnson's Alphabet and the Proposed British
Alphabet estimates of the loss of income in British and American
currency. The enquiry must be confined strictly to the statistical and
mathematical problems to be solved without regard to the views of
professional and amateur phoneticians, etymologists, Spelling
Reformers, patentees of universal languages, inventors of shorthand
codes for verbatim reporting or rival alphabets, teachers of the
established orthography, disputants about pronunciation, or any of the
irreconcilables whose wranglings have overlooked and confused the
single issue of labour saving and made change impossible during the
last hundred years. The inquiry must not imply any approval of or
disapproval of the Proposed British Alphabet by the inquirers or by my
Trustee.</p>
<p>(2) To employ a phonetic expert to transliterate my play
entitled “Androcles and the Lion” into the Proposed British Alphabet
assuming the pronunciation to resemble that recorded of His Majesty our
late King George V. and sometimes described as Northern English.</p>
<p>(3) To employ an artist-calligrapher to fair-copy the
transliteration for reproduction by lithography photography or any
other method that may serve in the absence of printers' types.</p>
<p>(4) To advertise and publish the transliteration with the
original Dr. Johnson's lettering opposite the transliteration page by
page and a glossary of the two alphabets at the end and to present
copies to public libraries in the British Isles, the British
Commonwealth, the American States North and South and to national
libraries everywhere in that order.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>After some legal battles (“<a href="http://www.btinternet.com/%7Eakme/shaw.html">increase
of knowledge is not a charitable purpose</a>”), a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shavian_alphabet">Shavian
alphabet</a> was chosen and Penguin published <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/376016/details/3497300">The
Shaw Alphabet Edition of Androcles and the Lion</a></i> in
1962.</p>
<p>The Shavian alphabet is encoded in Unicode, though I have
never seen anyone make use of it.</p>
<p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Ritson">Joseph
Ritson</a>, on the other hand, aimed not to simplify spelling,
but to restore its etymological purity. This meant, for instance,
writing <i>-yed, adding</i> extra <i>e</i>'s
and putting back the <i>k</i> in -<i>ic</i>
words that had recently lost it. He intended to publish an “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Msede2uWII8C&q=orthographico-etymological%20dictionary">orthographico-etymological
dictionary</a>” following his principles, but it survives only in
manuscript; some representative entries are given <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=53roUFLpz8sC&pg=PA135">here</a>.
But he did follow those principles in some of his published works. Here
is his description of his diet from <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Cn8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA201#v=onepage&q&f=false"><i>An
Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food: As a Moral Duty</i></a>
(1802):</p>
<blockquote>[T]he compileër himſelf, induce'd to ſerious
reflection, by the peruſal of Mandevilles <i>Fable of the bees</i>,
in the year 1772, being the 19th year of his age, has ever ſince, to
the reviſeal of this ſheet, firmly adhere'd to a milk. and vegetable
diet, haveing, at leaſt, never taſteëd, dureing the whole courſe of
thoſe thirty years, a morſel of fleſh, fiſh, or fowl, or any thing, to
his knowlege, prepare'd in or with thoſe ſubſtanceës or any extract
thereof, unleſs, on one occaſion, when tempted by wet, cold and hunger,
in the ſouth of Scotland, he venture'd to eat a few potatos, dreſs'd
under the roaſt; nothing, leſs repugnant to his feelings, being to be
had; or except by ignorance or impoſition; unleſs, it may be, in eating
egs, which, however, deprives no animal of life, though it may prevent
ſome from comeing into the world to be murder'd and devour'd by others.</blockquote>
<p>So too in his letters, saying in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=LpNCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA203">one</a>
from 1791, “You observe, by the way, i am teaching you how to spell.”
His only converts to either of his reforms were his widowed sister, Ann
Frank, and her son Joseph.</p>
<p>Ritson was an atheist and a Jacobin. For a time after the
French Revolution, he <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Msede2uWII8C&pg=PA12#v=onepage&q=citizen%20Godwin&f=false">referred</a>
to his peers, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Godwin">William
Godwin</a> the proto-anarchist, as “citizen.” Godwin was no
vegetarian — <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hSk9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA518#v=onepage&q&f=false">according</a>
to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_Hogg">Hogg</a>,
he “always ate meat, and rather sparingly, and little else besides.”
But his future son-in-law, Percy Bysshe Shelly, was, and consequently
his daughter Mary, and so the Monster, for <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2Zc3AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA116#v=onepage&q=%22acorns%20and%20berries%20afford%20me%20sufficient%20nourishment%22&f=false">whom</a>,
“acorns and berries afford me sufficient nourishment.”</p>
<p>All of these feature in a satire of a report, “Dinner by the
Amateurs of Vegetable Diet,” inspired by a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=IhpMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q&f=false">note</a>
to <i>Queen Mab</i>, which first appeared in the <i>London
Magazine and Theatrical Inquisitor</i> for July 1821 and was <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k66538q/f445.image.r=.langEN">reprinted</a>
several times in various forms elsewhere:</p>
<blockquote>At five o'clock the tables were spread, and the
guests assembled on Hampstead Heath. <a href="http://www.ivu.org/history/england19a/newton.html">Mr.
N.</a> was in the chair; near him sat <a href="http://www.ivu.org/history/england19a/lambe.html">Dr.
L.</a>, <a href="http://www.ivu.org/history/england19a/ritson.html">Mr.
R. (the antiquarian)</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Stephen_%28civil_servant%29">Sir
J. S.</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Paley">the Rev. P.</a>,
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Taylor_%28neoplatonist%29">Mr.
T., the Pythagorean philosopher</a>. <a href="http://www.ivu.org/history/shelley/">Mr. P. B. S.</a>
was vice-president; near him was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Godwin">Mr. G.</a>,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_Hogg">Mr.
H.</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Henry_Leigh_Hunt">Mr.
L. H.</a>, with many others whom it would be tedious to enumerate.</blockquote>
<p><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/title/unextinguished-hearth-shelley-and-his-contemporary-critics/oclc/239091">White</a>
proposes <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Love_Peacock">Peacock</a>
as the author, or perhaps a collaboration between Hunt (prose) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Smith_%28poet%29">Horace
Smith</a> (poem). Diet aside, today we need only click to find
what Godwin actually did <a href="http://godwindiary.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/diary/1814-04-14.html">that
day</a>.</p>
<p>Ritson was a respected antiquary. (For instance, Godwin
consulted him for his <i><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/title/life-of-geoffrey-chaucer-the-early-english-poet-including-memoirs-of-his-near-friend-and-kinsman-john-of-gaunt-duke-of-lancaster-with-sketches-of-the-manners-opinions-arts-and-literature-of-england-in-the-fourteenth-century/oclc/2012623&referer=brief_results">Life
of Geoffrey Chaucer</a></i>.) But even more he was known as
a truculent critic, driving home minor points in a way that was
entirely out of proportion. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Lounsbury">Thomas
Lounsbury</a> writes thus of Ritson in his history of <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2U1KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA245#v=onepage">English
Spelling and Spelling Reform</a></i>:</p>
<blockquote>To scholars Ritson is well known as the fiercest of
antiquaries, who loved accuracy with the same passion with which other
men love persons, and who hated a mistake, whether arising from
ignorance or inadvertence, as a saint might hate a deliberate lie. He
is equally well known for his devotion to a vegetable diet, and also
for the manifestation, noticeable in others so addicted, of a
bloodthirstiness of disposition in his criticism which the most savage
of carnivorous feeders might have contemplated with envy.</blockquote>
<p>In 1782, Ritson wrote <i>Observations on the Three
First Volumes of The History of English Poetry</i>, critiquing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Warton">Thomas
Warton</a>'s<i> The History of English Poetry, from the
close of the Eleventh to the Commencement of the Eighteenth Century </i>and
attacking its author personally. (“<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KFoLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58#v=onepage&q=%22my%20libel%20upon%20Warton%22&f=false">my
libel upon Warton</a>,” he called it in a letter to his friend <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UmMdAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA328">Robert
Harrison</a>. Apparently he later <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=z3FKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA7">repented</a>
and tried to destroy copies. I cannot find it online except in <a href="http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO?c=1&stp=Author&ste=11&af=BN&ae=T146579&tiPG=1&dd=0&dc=flc&docNum=CW113153502&vrsn=1.0&srchtp=a&d4=0.33&n=10&SU=0LRK">ECCO</a>;
frustratingly, it's bound into <a href="http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/008394128">Columbia's
copy of Warton</a>, but Google didn't scan that volume. Many of
Ritson's corrections were included as footnotes in a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=oR4uAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false">later
edition</a> of Warton.) The following year, in his <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RFNBAQAAIAAJ">Remarks,
Critical and Illustrative, on the Text and Notes of the Last Edition of
Shakspeare</a></i>, Ritson took on Johnson and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Steevens">Steevens</a>
(“<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KFoLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA61#v=onepage&q=%22scurrilous%20libel%22%20%22turn%20the%20world%20upside%20down%22&f=false">I
will turn the world upside down,</a>” he again wrote in a letter
to Harrison, recalling at the same time his “scurrilous libel against
Tom Warton.”). A satirical <a href="http://spenserians.cath.vt.edu/CommentRecord.php?action=GET&cmmtid=12130">verse</a>
was published in <i>St. James's Chronicle</i> (Jun. 3,
1793):</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="center"><b>The Pythagorean Critick</b></p>
<p>By wise Pythagoras taught, young R—s—n's Meals<br />
With bloody Viands never are defil'd;<br />
For Quadruped, for Bird, for Fish he feels;<br />
His Board ne'er smoaks with roast Meat,
or with boil'd.</p>
<p>In this one Instance pious, mild, and tame,<br />
He's surely in another a great Sinner,<br />
For Man, cries R—s—n, Man's alone my Game!<br />
On him I make a most delicious Dinner!</p>
<p>To Ven'son and to Partridge I've no <i>Goût</i>;<br />
For W—rt—n Tom such Dainties I resign:<br />
Give me plump St—v—ns, and large J—hns—n too,<br />
And take your Turkey and your savoury
Chine.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In Ritson's <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZtEcAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA328#v=onepage&q&f=false">DNB</a></i>
entry, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Lee">Sidney
Lee</a> also attributes his acerbic personality to his diet: “To
this depressing diet he adhered, in the face of much ridicule, until
death, and it was doubtless in part responsible for the moroseness of
temper which characterised his later years.” Ironically, Ritson is
certain that it has the opposite effect, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Cn8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA87#v=onepage&q&f=false">quoting</a>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Arbuthnot">Arbuthnot</a>:</p>
<blockquote>“I have known,” ſays doctor Arbuthnot, “more than one
inſtance of iraſcible pasſions being much ſubdue'd by a vegetable
diet.” (<i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=LbOW4-yyZxoC&pg=PA226">Esſay</a></i>,
p. 186)</blockquote>
<p>De Quincey included Ritson among his “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HSkAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA255#v=onepage&q&f=false">Orthographic
Mutineers</a>.” <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_James_Furnivall">F.
J. Furnivall</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RK_OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR24#v=onepage&q=vegetarian+teetotaller+non-smoker&f=false">vegetarian,
teetotaller and non-smoker</a>, was the second editor of the <i>Oxford
English Dictionary</i>. His principles for spelling reform were
more of the usual sort; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_W._Pollard">Alfred
W. Pollard</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RK_OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA150">recalled</a>:</p>
<blockquote>I remember at an early meeting of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Spelling_Society">Simplified
Spelling Society</a>, only a couple of years ago, after I had
advocated simplification on an historical basis, the uncompromising
firmness with which he told me that the majority of the council were
committed to a phonetic basis, and that if I didn't like it I had
better go!</blockquote>
<p>The <i>Oxford Magazine</i> gently <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=uFPnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA307#v=onepage&q=Orthographer%20Royal&f=false">mocked</a>,
“why two <i>l</i>'s Orthographer Royal?” <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Schoenbaum">Samuel
Schoenbaum</a> is <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=gnxlAAAAMAAJ&q=%22upbringing+gave+way+in+manhood+to%22#search_anchor">harsher</a>
(and in full support of the topic of this post):</p>
<blockquote>An abstainer from flesh, alcohol, and tobacco,
Furnivall obtained solace from spelling reform: a Shavian cause
irresistibly alluring to teetotaling vegetarians.</blockquote>
<p>In America, Benjamin Franklin had briefly promoted a <a style="font-style: italic;" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Ukw8qG8Zl2oC&pg=PA295#v=onepage&q&f=false">Scheme for a New Alphabet and a Reformed Mode of Spelling</a>
to the point of having type made for the new letters and getting Noah
Webster to take over the project. But by this time he was no longer a
strict vegetarian.</p>
<p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Torrey_Harris">William
Torrey Harris</a> was a founding member of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Spelling_Board">Simplified
Spelling Board</a>. Here is his <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=FioruGAWlgcC&pg=PA544">description</a>
of meeting <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amos_Bronson_Alcott">Bronson
Alcott</a> (father of Louisa May; cousin of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Alcott">William
Alcott</a>, the author of <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books/?id=5wEAAAAAQAAJ">Vegetable
Diet</a>: As Sanctioned by Medical Men, and by Experience in All
Ages</i> — vegetarians all):</p>
<blockquote><span style="font-variant: small-caps;">I
First</span> saw Mr. Alcott in New Haven, Conn., in the winter of
1856-1857, when I had completed the first term of my junior year at
Yale College. An acquaintance of mine who was interested in a series of
conversations that had been arranged for Mr. Alcott invited me to
attend, and I did so. I found something quite congenial to me. I had
begun to inquire after the foundations of customary belief, and, as a
natural consequence, was in a state of protest against many of the
habits and practices that existed around me. I had been attracted to
phrenology; had adopted the diet of the vegetarians; was an ardent
advocate of the spelling reform; looked at gymnastics, water-cure,
dress reform, mesmerism, and spiritualism as promising a new and better
order of things. I was, in short, in that stage of “clearing-up” which
the Germans call <i>Die Aufklärung.</i></blockquote>
<p>Harris went on to be associated with Alcott's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord_School_of_Philosophy">Concord
School of Philosophy</a>.</p>
<p>Easily the best example is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Pitman">Isaac Pitman</a>,
inventor of shorthand and vice president of the <a href="http://www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=827">Vegetarian
Society</a>. As the most famous vegetarian in England, he
licensed his name for use in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pitman_Vegetarian_Hotel">Pitman
Vegetarian Hotel</a>.</p>
<p>Pitman first published his shorthand system in 1837. In 1842,
he began publishing a series of experimental alphabets following a
principle he called <i>phonotypy</i>, that each sound
should have a separate symbol and, as much as possible, the shape of
the symbol should reflect the sound. About this time he was contacted
by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_John_Ellis">Alexander
John Ellis</a>, with whom he began collaborating. Intermediate
phonotypic alphabet numbers <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=r4iAQNRob3MC&pg=PA182">8</a>
and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=r4iAQNRob3MC&pg=PA184">10</a>
are in Google Books. In June, 1845, he announced the “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=K-gOAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA105">Completion
of the Phonotypic Alphabet</a>.” In January, 1847, he published
the “English Phonotypic Alphabet,” which is therefore known as the 1847
alphabet. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=uZsrAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP6#v=onepage&q&f=false">Here</a>
is a detailed explanation from 1848. (Note the marks for a question as
opposed to doubt and for tone of voice.) Pitman continued to tweak the
system, and Ellis developed his own innovations as well. There were
also offshoots in America, in particular in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=353NAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA240">Cincinatti</a>.
From his <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WFpPvzxBvVkC&pg=PA19">Fonetik
Institut</a>, Pitman began producing books and periodicals
explaining and using this new phonetic alphabet and reporting on the
movement to get it adopted, which were published by this brother
Frederick. Pitman also published phonetic editions of various classics,
including <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZjUvAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7">The
Vicar of Wakefield</a></i> and <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=JmEEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9">Macbeth</a></i>.
And new works: <i>The Squire ov Ingleburn, and What he did with
the “Lawson Armz,”</i> apparently a temperance story, met with
approval from both <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=gwQFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA68#v=onepage&q&f=false">dietetic</a>
and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=m4QNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA216#v=onepage&q&f=false">spelling</a>
reformers.</p>
<p>Inevitably, there are vegetarian-related reports in Pitman's
publications. The following list has some representative material from
Google Books. (I have had to use Unicode characters that are only close
to the 1847 alphabet. There is a <a href="http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4079.pdf">proposal</a>
from the earlier this year for an official encoding of the various
generations of the English Phonotypic Alphabet.)</p>
<ul>
<li><i>The Phonetic Journal</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=7acTAAAAYAAJ&dq=vegetarian&pg=PA216">3
Jul. 1852</a>: ad (in regular spelling) for a
vegetarian cookbook</li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=7acTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=vejeterian">10
Jan. 1852</a>: <span style="font-family: Code2000;"><a href="http://www.ivu.org/history/usa19/clubb.html">Henri
Stiven Club</a>, ɛj 24, vejetɛrian</span> (who would
shortly emigrate to the States, where he was president of the
Vegetarian Society of America)</li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=jaYTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA280&dq=vejeterian">27
Aug 1852</a>: <span style="font-family: Code2000;">Siksɉ
anyųal baŋkwet ov ƌe Vejetɛrian Sơseieti</span></li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=1KoTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=vejeterian">26
Sep. 1874</a>: <span style="font-family: Code2000;">Dįetari
reform</span></li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vbIUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA522&dq=vejeterian">4
Dec. 1875</a>: <span style="font-family: Code2000;">Dįet
disʝz and helɉ</span></li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=J4QNAAAAQAAJ&dq=vejeterian&pg=PA441">9
Sep. 1876</a>: <span style="font-family: Code2000;">ɷtơbįografi
ov a vejetɛrian, reported bį <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Ottley_Groom_Napier">C.
O. Grɯm Nɛpier</a></span></li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=uLEUAAAAYAAJ&dq=vejeterian&pg=PA526">29
Oct. 1881</a>: <span style="font-family: Code2000;">Fųd
reform</span></li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WYQNAAAAQAAJ&dq=vejeterian&pg=PA51">4
Feb. 1882</a>: <span style="font-family: Code2000;">Moraliti
in deiet</span></li>
<li>A <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KMEpAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA47#v=onepage&q&f=false">letter</a>
to the <i>Times</i>, printed Feb. 6, 1879, advocating a
“vejetabel deiet,” and signed “Eizak Pitman.”</li>
<li>Which occasioned a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ez5XAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA61#v=onepage&q&f=false">cartoon</a>
in <i>Punch</i> on Feb. 15, captioned “An Evergreen
Vegetarian,” with a satire feigning surprise that Pitman and his <i>Fonetik
Nuz</i> were still alive.</li>
</ul>
<p>Consequently, an essay “On Spelling” by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller">Max
Muller</a> in <i>The Fortnightly Review</i> in 1876
had to <a href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000093208761;seq=579;q1=vegetarians;start=1;size=25;page=search;num=579;view=image">caution</a>:</p>
<blockquote>Let facts have some weight, and let it not be
supposed by men of the world that those who defend the principles of
the <i>Fonetic Nuz </i>are only teetotalers and
vegetarians, who have never learned how to spell.</blockquote>
<p><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=FbITAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA186#v=onepage&q&f=false">Here</a>
is the same essay in phonetic spelling.</p>
<p>Thomas Lang, founding Secretary of the Australian Vegetarian
Society, was a Scottish immigrant who ran a seed import and nursery
business in the gold rush town of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballarat">Ballarat</a>
and so was directly responsible for a variety of vegetables and fruits
being available to Australians. And according to <a href="http://www.ivu.org/history/societies/australia2.html">this
history</a>, among the views he shared with Pitman was spelling
reform. Isaac Pitman's grandson, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Pitman">James</a>,
continued the advocacy for spelling reform; he also edited and
contributed to the collection <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/2946635">George
Bernard Shaw On Language</a></i> and the <i>The Shaw
Alphabet Edition of Androcles and the Lion</i> was dedicated to
him. He was a Tory MP and I don't think he was a vegetarian.</p>
<p>For Lewis, diet- and spelling-reformers were stereotypes of
certain kinds of modernists. Still, there was an actual overlap. But
what of languages other than English, whose spelling plight is extreme
but not unique?</p>
<p>In 1905, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerardus_Heymans">Gerardus
Heymans</a> and <a href="http://www.rug.nl/museum/galerij/portretten/hoogleraar/wiersma">Enno
Dirk Wiersma</a>, two Groningen psychologists, sent out a
questionnaire to every family physician in the Netherlands, asking for
personality profiles of family members, with the aim of determining the
hereditary nature of such traits. The resulting data formed the basis
for the development of Heymans's Cube. One particular question is
relevant here.</p>
<blockquote>Vraag 77. Anarchist, socialist, spiritist, theosoof,
vegetariër, geheelonthouder, aanhanger der natuurgeneeswijze, aanhanger
der Kollewijnsche spelling? (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=6FdJAAAAMAAJ&q=%22vraag+77%22">here</a>)
<p>Frage 77. Ist die betreffende Person Anarchist, Sozialist,
Spiritist, Theosoph, Vegetarier, Abstinenzler, Anhänger der
Naturheilkunde, Anhänger der <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Kollewijn</span>schen
Rechtschreibung? (from the statistical <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=W6ILAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA287">report</a>
on the findings in German)</p>
<p>Question 77. [Is the person in question an] anarchist,
socialist, spiritualist, theosophist, vegetarian, teetotaler, adherent
of naturopathy or adherent of <a href="http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roeland_Anthonie_Kollewijn">Kollewijn</a>
spelling?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>From the accompanying explanation, this was meant “einen
leidlichen Maßstab für die Neuerungssucht abzugeben” 'to yield a
tolerable measure of modernism'. And from their analysis, it was the
presence of two or more innovations that was a key personality factor.
Nevertheless, I have not been able to find any prominent Dutch
individuals advocating the two under consideration here. Feel free to
suggest someone and I'll amend the post.</p>
</div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-10214974232369755672010-04-27T00:33:00.007-05:002013-08-10T21:58:53.720-05:00Seitan<p>Greater Boston has a couple new vegetarian restaurants. <a href="http://www.thepulsecafe.com/index.html">The Pulse Cafe</a>
in Somerville has classic vegetarian fare from fresh ingredients, food
of the sort that those of middle-age might remember making from what
they bought at the food coop or Erewhon on Newbury Street. <a href="http://www.theredlentil.com/">The Red Lentil</a> in Watertown has a similar base, but a bolder and more global spice profile. A favorable <a href="http://thephoenix.com/boston/food/99194-red-lentil-vegetarian-and-vegan-restaurant/">review</a>
by Robert Nadeau, Boston's veteran restaurant critic, proposes the Gobi
Manchurian as their signature appetizer. I'm not sure I agree. The
cauliflower was indeed cooked just right, but I think the Indo-Chinese
spices need to be more like at <a href="http://www.indiandhabaonline.com/">Indian Dhaba</a> or <a href="http://www.mysoreveggie.com/">Mysore Veggie</a> (<small>one of two South Indian restaurants next to an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSO_%28Swaminarayan%29">ISSO</a> Swaminarayan <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandir">mandir</a> in Lowell — the one in the picture <a href="http://pluralism.org/profiles/view/69775">here</a>, though I believe the text on that page refers to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Swaminarayan_Boston.jpg">this one</a></small>)
on its Thursday Indo-Chinese night (even if the color does sometimes
reach outside nature). For my favorite of Red Lentil's appetizers, I
would choose the Sesame Encrusted Seitan Strips with miso horseradish
dressing. Of another seitan dish, that Phoenix review mistakes its
source, “Seitan with teff crêpes ($14.50) takes the meatiest-textured
soy product and wraps it in a series of earthy <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teff">teff</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injera">injeras</a>, which are somehow stiffened to near-taco crunchability.”</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2010/04/seitan.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seitan">Seitan</a> is wheat gluten. (<b>Update</b>:
The 4/30 print column included several readers' corrections and the
online review linked to above now says “wheat gluten product.”)
Broadly, it refers to chunks of gluten prepared in various ways.
Specifically, to those that have been simmered in soy sauce.</p><p>The word was coined by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Ohsawa">George Ohsawa</a>, who brought the macrobiotic diet to America, and either invented seitan or worked closely with Kiyoshi Mokutani, president of <a href="http://www.marusima.co.jp/">Marushima Shoyu</a>, who did, to bring it to market in the late 1960s. The <i>tan</i> is the first part of 蛋白 <i>tanpaku</i> 'protein'. The <i>sei</i> might be a suffix as in 植物製 'plant-made' or 植物性 'plant-like' <i>shokubutsu-sei</i>, although as the <a href="http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/00338379?query_type=word&queryword=seitan">OED</a> points out it is unusual for Japanese words to be invented that way. So it is also claimed to be from <i>sei</i>
'to be; become' (成?), with a resultant sense of 'right protein
substitute' (see record 557 in William Shurtleff's Soyinfo Center <a href="http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/138">here</a>). In Japanese, the word is still used only in the macrobiotic context, and written as セイタン.</p><p>The earliest quotation in the OED is from <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/779150">The Art of Just Cooking</a></i> (1974) by George's wife Lima, in a recipe (p. 85) for making seitan by simmering wheat gluten in <i>shoyu</i> seasoned with ginger for a few hours. The chapter in which it appears is titled, “<i>Kofu</i>: Wheat Gluten.” 烤麩 <i>kōfu</i> (<i>kaofu</i>) is Shanghai-style wheat gluten. 麩 <i>fu</i> alone is the normal Japanese word for wheat gluten, the two main types being 生麩 <i>nama-fu</i>, raw gluten used in Buddhist temple cuisine (精進料理 <i>shōjin ryōri</i>: mentioned before in the <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/01/iron-chef.html">Iron Chef</a> post; or see <a href="http://www.kajitsunyc.com/index.html">Kajitsu</a>, a Michelin-starred restaurant in New York) and 焼き麩 <i>yaki-fu</i>, grilled or dried gluten used in soups or simmered dishes or on salads.</p><p><a href="http://www.docoja.com:8080/wkanji/ukeykanj.jsp?dbname=kanjig&keyword=confectionery&encode=UTF-8">飴</a> <i>ame</i> can refer to a traditional Japanese candy made from wheat-gluten, inflated like a balloon and formed into animal shapes (see <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=TrERAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA537">here</a> and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eMxGAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA152">here</a>; illustrated <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HiYLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA162-IA2#v=onepage&q=&f=false">here</a> and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=IjNAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA32-IA1#v=onepage&q=&f=false">here</a>). <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobayashi_Issa">Issa</a> wrote a <a href="http://haikuguy.com/issa/haiku.php?code=197.19a">haiku</a>:</p><blockquote>梅さくや飴の鶯口を明く<p><i>ume sake ya ame no uguisu kuchi wo aku</i></p><p>plum blossoms--<br />the candy nightingale<br />opens his mouth</p></blockquote><p>(I don't know a lot more about the tradition, but I wonder whether the 笛 <i>fue</i> 'flute; pipe' in some of his other candy <a href="http://haikuguy.com/issa/search.php?japanese=%88%B9&romaji=&year=">poems</a> might refer to the reed used to blow-up the gluten, rather than a musical instrument meant to attract customers.)</p><p>In Chinese, prepared wheat gluten is 麵筋 <i>mian4jin1</i> (Cantonese <i>min6gan1</i>;
simplified 面筋; literally 'noodle tendon'), used, along with bean curd
and bean curd skin, to make Buddhist vegetarian mock meats of various
textures. The earliest surviving occurrence of the word is in the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays">Dream Pool Essays</a></i>:</p><blockquote>凡鐵之有鋼者,如麵中有筋,濯盡柔麵,則麵筋乃見。(<a href="http://zh.wikisource.org/zh/%E5%A4%A2%E6%BA%AA%E7%AD%86%E8%AB%87/%E5%8D%B703">chap. 3, item 56</a>)<p><i>fan2 tie3 zhi1 you3 gang1zhe3, ru2 mian4 zhong1 you3 jin1, zhuo2 jin4 rou2 mian4, ze2 mian4jin1 nai3 jian4</i>.</p><p>Steel is to iron as <i>mien chin</i> (gluten) is to <i>mien</i> (flour). It is only after thoroughly washing the dough that gluten is revealed. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=FgtFxedkgbcC&pg=PA500#v=onepage&q&f=false">Needham</a>)</p></blockquote><p>麩 <i>fu1</i> (simplified 麸; 麥 <i>mai4</i> 'wheat' with a phonetic 夫 <i>fu1</i>) originally meant 'bran', as it still does, but for a time was also 'gluten', hence as in Japanese. The Song Dynasty Taoist <a href="http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh/%E7%99%BD%E7%8E%89%E8%9F%BE">白玉蟾</a> Bai2 Yu4 Chan2 (born 葛長庚 Ge3 Chang2 Geng1; see further bio and photo album <a href="http://javewu.multiply.com/photos/album/585/585">here</a>) wrote the following poem (quoted, for example, on <a href="http://www.glulu.com/messages.asp?articleid=1136&dalei=">this page</a> on the history of Chinese wheat gluten):</p><blockquote>嫩腐雖云美,麩筋最清純。<p><i>nen4fu3 sui1 yun2 mei3, fu1jin1 zui4 qing1 chun2.</i></p><p>Although <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tofu#Soft.2Fsilken_tofu">soft bean curd</a> is said to be beautiful, wheat gluten is the cleanest and purest.</p></blockquote><p>As
far as I know, Boston no longer has a restaurant serving this sort of
Chinese Buddhist cuisine (the closest is the Vietnamese version at
Grasshopper). But New York has several, including the wonderfully-named
<a href="http://nymag.com/listings/restaurant/house-of-vegetarian/">House of Vegetarian</a>.</p><p><b>Update</b>: The warm weather specials menu at <a href="http://www.jojotaipeiboston.com/">JǒJǒ TaiPei</a> (久久台北) in Allston Village has a number of cold dishes, including Braised (“Red-Cooked”) Wheat Gluten 紅燒烤麩 <i>hong2shao1 kao3fu1</i>,
which it translates as “Roasted Bean Curd Pie,” a translation made even
more interesting by its apparent uniqueness on the Web — up until now.</p><p>Slightly earlier than Lima Ohsawa's book was <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/1093170">The Health Food Dictionary with Recipes</a></i> (1973), with the rather confusing entry (p. 153):</p><blockquote>Seitan
is made from the pulp left over from the preparation of tamari soy
sauce. It is dried in jerkylike strips that are high in protein and
particularly good in soups.</blockquote><p>Which certainly sounds as though it's made from soy beans, even if we allow that this was a time when <i>tamari</i>
meant soy sauce with wheat in English (due again to Ohsawa;
etymologically 溜まり 'collected things', but just written phonetically
たまり), what is now more often called <i>shoyu</i> (due to Shurtleff's efforts; 醤油). I admit that I do not actually know what happens to the residue after the <i><a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O39-moromi.html">moromi</a></i>
(醪) has finished fermenting and the soy sauce (and soy oil) have been
filtered out, but it does not become wheat. It is true that early
seitan was much more like jerky, and much saltier. (See Soyinfo Center
record 11 <a href="http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/124">here</a>.)</p><p>The earliest reference to <i>seitan</i> that I have also puts it in with soy. <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/9879300">Cooking Good Food</a></i> (circa 1969) says (p. 6):</p><blockquote><i>Seitan</i>
or “Protein X” is made from the same ingredients as the above
condiments. A slightly different process produces a strong jerky which,
when boiled or sauteed, resembles beef in appearance and taste. It is
very good in soups.</blockquote><p><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6vrEJg70mbk4knZ707y00f-dz7Guq4o-4RhFMlEinau-xfCCahyphenhyphenXp_Rf-qbuZJcaxSdGxaa89m3anuqjKssL6-wZQbVCXfRNLsAKBGd449-ZNp_2zJK_PT7On-Z_e9HNTVnQKZSH0wCo/s1600/seitan.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 400px; height: 32px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6vrEJg70mbk4knZ707y00f-dz7Guq4o-4RhFMlEinau-xfCCahyphenhyphenXp_Rf-qbuZJcaxSdGxaa89m3anuqjKssL6-wZQbVCXfRNLsAKBGd449-ZNp_2zJK_PT7On-Z_e9HNTVnQKZSH0wCo/s400/seitan.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5466462780714663858" border="0" /></a></p><p>“The above” being <i>tamari</i>, <i>miso</i>, and <i>morromi</i> [sic], together with <i>tofu</i>
the products of the soybean, which “has been called the ‘Vegetable Cow’
of the Orient.” The booklet does not list an author. It is published by
Order of the Universe Publications, which put out a newsletter of the
same name promoting the teachings of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michio_Kushi">Michio Kushi</a> (issue one scan available <a href="http://kushipublishing.com/?p=325">here</a>). Their address, Box 203, Prudential Center Station, Boston, was just a couple blocks from Erewhon: see <a href="http://www.usmillsinc.com/contentmgr/showdetails.php/id/21">here</a> for a summary of Erewhon's history. The Soyinfo center record (1470 <a href="http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/130">here</a>)
says that the author was its editor, Jim Ledbetter, and confirms it as
the earliest occurrence of the word in their (extensive) records. The
book is also notable for being listed in the appendix, “Other Books
Worth Stealing,” to <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/200291"><i>Steal This Book</i></a>,
with the annotation, “Eastern recipes and ways of preparing different
foods.” Right after it is another from the same publisher, <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/14126230"><i>Cooking with Grains and Vegetables Plus</i></a>, “Mystical, health food freaks will dig this book.” The plus being the revised Boston edition of the <a href="http://www.worldcat.org/title/cooking-with-grains-and-vegetables/oclc/86826">Los Angeles edition</a>, which Erewhon distributed.</p><p>In the West, credit for the discovery, or at least scientific isolation, of wheat gluten usually goes to <a href="http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iacopo_Bartolomeo_Beccari">Iacopo Bartolomeo Beccari</a>.
The secretary of the Institute of Science of Bologna reported his
washing away the starch to leave the gluten (done around 1728, written
up in 1745):</p><blockquote>Res eſt parvi laboris. Farina ſumitur ex
optimo tritico, modice trita, ne cribrum furfures ſubeant; oportet enim
ab his eſſe quam expurgatiſſimam, ut omnis miſturæ tollatur ſuſpicio.
Tum aquæ puriſſimæ permiſcetur, ac ſubigitur. Quod reliquum eſt operis,
lotura abſolvit. Aqua enim partes omnes, quaſcumque poteſt ſolvere,
ſecum avehit; alias intactas relinquit.<p>Porro hæ, quas aqua
relinquit, contrectatæ manibus, preſſæque ſub aqua relique, paullatim
in maſſam coguntur mollem, & ſupra, quam credi poteſt, tenacem:
egregium glutinis genus, & ad opificia multa aptiſſimum; in quo
illud notatu dignum eſt, quod aquæ permiſceri ſe amplius non ſinit.
Illæ aliæ, quas aqua ſecum avehit, aliquandiu innatant, & aquam
lacteam reddunt; poſt paullatim deferuntur ad fundum, & ſubſidunt;
nec admodum inter ſe cohærent; ſed quaſi pulvis vel leviſſimo concuſſu
ſurſum redeunt. Nihil his affinius eſt amylo; vel potius ipſæ
veriſſimum ſunt amylum. Atque hæc ſcilicet duo ſunt illa partium
genera, quæ ſibi Beccarius propoſuit ad chymicum opus faciendum, quæque
ut ſuis nominibus diſtingueret, glutinoſum alterum appellare ſolebat,
alterum amylaceum. (<a href="http://amshistorica.cib.unibo.it/diglib.php?inv=1&int_ptnum=2&term_ptnum=131&format=jpg&comment=0amp;zoom=&zoom="><i>De Bononiensi Scientiarum et Artium Instituto atque Academia Commentarii</i>, II, i, p. 123.</a>)</p><p>It
is a thing of little labor. Flour is taken of the best wheat,
moderately ground, the bran not passing through the sieve, for it is
necessary that this be fully purged away, so that all traces of a
mixture have been removed. Then it is mixed with pure water and
kneaded. What is left by this procedure, washing clarifies. Water
carried off with itself all it is able to dissolve, the rest remains
untouched.</p><p>After this, what the water leaves is worked in the
hands, and pressed upon in the water that has stayed. Slowly it is
drawn together in a doughy mass, and beyond what is possible to be
believed, tenacious, a remarkable sort of glue, and suited to many
uses; and what is especially worthy of note, it cannot any longer be
mixed with water. The other particles, which water carries away with
itself, for some time float and render the water milky; but after a
while they are carried to the bottom and sink; nor in any way do they
adhere to each other; but like powder they return upward on the
lightest contact. Nothing is more like this than starch, or rather this
truly is starch. And these are manifestly the two sorts of bodies which
Beccari displayed through having done the work of a chemist and he
distinguished them by their names, one being appropriately called
glutinous and the other amylaceous. (tr. <a href="http://jhmas.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pdf_extract/XVI/4/354">Beach</a>)</p></blockquote><p>There were earlier partial efforts, of course. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a>'s microscopes were sufficient to distinguish gluten from starch in wheat flour. But he did not fully understand what he <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=mvoTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA243#v=onepage&q&f=false">saw</a>, just as he did not <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=1j4D4XIUqQ8C&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false">recognize</a> yeast in beer for what it was. In both cases, everything was just more <i>globuli farinarii</i>. (See, for instance, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%E7ois-Vincent_Raspail">Raspail</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ru4TAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA559#v=onepage&q&f=false">here</a> and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=kWMdUBpKuqkC&pg=PA230#v=onepage&q&f=false">here</a>.) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Maria_Grimaldi">Francesco Grimaldi</a>, in his <i><a href="http://fermi.imss.fi.it/rd/bdv?/bdviewer/bid=300682">De Lumine</a></i>
(1665), described (p. 47; I cannot figure out how to deep link to that
site), “glutino … ex farina” 'glue from wheat' from which “remanet
ipſum glutinum exſiccatum, durum, ac inflexibile:” 'the dry glue itself
remains, hard and inflexible'. In the provocatively titled “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=gCAWAQAAIAAJ&q=Jacopo+Bartolomeo+Beccari+n%27a+pas+decouvert+le+gluten">Jacopo Bartolomeo Beccari n'a pas découvert le gluten</a>,” <a href="http://www.sma.unibo.it/ortobotanico/savelli.html">Roberto Savelli</a>
not only assigns priority to Grimaldi, but supposes, “La découverte du
gluten et de sa préparation est presque certainement une découverte
faite par hasard en cuisine, par quelque bonne grosse ménagère
bolonaise, et divulguée comme un objet de curiosité.” 'The discovery of
gluten and its preparation is almost certainly a discovery made by
accident in the kitchen, by some nice fat Bolognese housewife, and
disclosed as an object of curiosity.'</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluten">Gluten</a> is composed of a pair of proteins: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliadin">gliadin</a>, which is somewhat soluble in alcohol, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutenin">glutenin</a>,
which is not. Long polymer chains of glutenin, unkinked by kneading,
are made viscous and extensible by the smaller gliadin. The beginning
of working this out was by <a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Einhof">Heinrich Einhof</a>, who called (“<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ER8FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA131">Chemische Analyse des Roggens</a>,” 1805) the soluble part <i>Kleber</i> 'glue' and the remainder <i>Pfanzenschleim</i> 'plant-mucus'. <a href="http://guide.supereva.it/storia_della_medicina/interventi/2009/01/gioacchino-taddei">Gioacchino Taddei</a> called them (“<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=wsRbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA360#v=onepage&q&f=false">Ricerche sul glutine di frumento</a>,” 1819, also <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=wsRbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA283#v=onepage&q&f=false">earlier in the same volume</a>) <i>gloiodina</i> and <i>zimoma</i>, that is, <i><a href="http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50095482?query_type=word&queryword=gliadin">gliadin</a></i> and <i><a href="http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50291585?query_type=word&queryword=zymome">zymome</a></i> (< γλοιώδης 'glutinous' / γλία 'glue' and ζύμωμα 'fermented mixture'). <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius">Berzelius</a>, who coined <i>protein</i> to describe the common nourishing substance of plants and animals, called the soluble part <i><a href="http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/00317379?query_type=word&queryword=mucin">mucin</a></i>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilaire_Rouelle">Hilaire Rouelle</a> made the idea even more explicit (“<a href="http://web2.bium.univ-paris5.fr/livanc/?cote=90145x1773x40&p=59&do=page">Observation sur les Fécules</a>”), calling gluten, “<i>matiere glutineuse ou végéto-animale</i>”
'glutinous or vegeto-animal substance'. In addition to wheat, and what
makes it rise (wheat gluten being just plastic enough to contain the
carbon dioxide and just elastic enough to stretch with it), these
researchers were as much concerned with fermentation in general.
Rouelle and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Fabbroni">Giovanni Fabbroni</a> proposed that alcohol was actually <i>produced</i> by distillation.</p><p>For
more of this, Google Books is full of late Victorian studies
(superseded for their chemistry, but more complete on history), such as
“<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4L0UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA171-IA4#v=onepage&q=&f=false">The Proteids of Wheat</a>”, “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=SDigAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA3-PA3#v=onepage&q=&f=false">The Chemistry of Wheat Gluten</a>” or <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PkVDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false"><i>The Vegetable Proteins</i></a>. One last name will link back from the history of biochemistry to the main topics of this blog. Gliadin was called <i><a href="http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50095992?query_type=word&queryword=glutin">glutin</a></i> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas-Th%E9odore_de_Saussure">Nicolas de Saussure</a> (“<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vaHRAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA243#v=onepage&q&f=false">De la formation du sucre dans la germination du froment</a>”), the grandfather of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>.</p><p>By
the end of the 19th century, wheat gluten was being produced
commercially (sometimes as a bi-product of wheat starch production, as
described <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xLcUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA57&lpg=PA57">here</a>).
It was sold as food suitable for diabetics and more generally the aged
and infirm. And under names like Dr. Johnson's Glutine or, from New
York's Health Food Company, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=H0FYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA455">White Wheat Gluten</a>. And as a general <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0n8WAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA153">cure</a>-<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8LgRAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA119">all</a>. In London, there was <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=iRtAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA668-IA2">Mr. Bullock's Semola</a>. Here in Boston, one could buy <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vjsBAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA10">Pure Vegetable Gluten</a> from the well-established apothecary Theodore Metcalf Co. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=quE-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA132">profile</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=jtAAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA240">obituary</a>; some <a href="http://www.southboroughhistory.org/History/Burnett%20Company/Medical/Theodore%20Metcalf%20Company.htm">merchandise</a>) at 39 Tremont St. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_8lHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA87#v=onepage&q&f=false">exterior</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=oItNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA279#v=onepage&q=&f=false">interior</a>; this was the next block up from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Museum_%28theatre%29">Boston Museum</a> and the original location of the Mass. Historical Society, who have preserved a copy of his <a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41242471">catalog</a>).</p><p>It
was also sold as a meat substitute for the growing number of
vegetarians, and in particular Adventists. John Harvey Kellogg (see the
<a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/11/shredded-wheat.html">breakfast cereal</a> post) sold <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=YnxXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA150">gluten meal</a> (somewhat like what is called “vital wheat gluten” today) and held a <a href="http://www.google.com/patents?id=2yxEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false">patent</a> for a preparation of wheat gluten and peanuts, which he sold as Protose.</p><p>And these continued to be made right through the appearance of macrobiotics and seitan. For example, <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/1623280"><i>The Fine Art of Cooking</i></a>,
an Adventist cookbook from 1941, has a recipe calling for canned Gluten
Steak to be simmered in Sovex (soy sauce and brewers yeast: see the <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2008/03/branded-meat-substitutes.html">glossary</a> post).</p><p>The book <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/52146"><i>Cooking with Seitan</i></a> (1987), by Barbara and Leonard Jacobs, and an <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=68AXAQAAIAAJ&q=%22cooking+with+seitan%22#search_anchor">article with the same title</a>
in 1985 in the East-West Journal, which the Jacobs published, says the
following, which has then been repeated by later sources:</p><blockquote>Seitan
is a food with a relatively long history. Although not widely known in
the West, it was traditionally eaten in China, Korea, Russia, the
Middle East, and probably many other countries that grew wheat.</blockquote><p>(It appears on the back cover of the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=m4XPdU4g4lkC&pg=PA188#v=onepage&q&f=false">later edition</a>
in Google Books.) This makes sense, like Prof. Savelli's Bolognese
housewife. But I do not myself know of any traditional Russian or
Middle-Eastern wheat gluten dishes. Perhaps some reader does: please
leave a comment if so.</p><p>Interestingly, the last time we were at Red Lentil, flyers had appeared on all the tables in support of the <a href="http://www.gluten.net/events.php">Chef to Plate</a>
gluten intolerance awareness campaign, since they have plenty of
gluten-free offerings. Conversely, for vegetarians with soy allergies,
wheat gluten is often proposed as an alternative protein source.
Unfortunately, this mostly only works if one makes it oneself, since
seitan and other prepared forms use soy. The can of mock abalone we
have was apparently made by simmering in soy sauce, then frying in
soybean oil, then seasoning with more soy sauce.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-42837330089044311512010-03-01T21:51:00.000-05:002010-03-01T22:50:16.260-05:00Bhut Jolokia<p>It was recently time to order to some more <a href="http://www.brobrubru.com/about/">Brother Bru-Bru</a>'s hot sauce, which is my preferred condiment for home fries and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6schti">Röschti</a>. Hot sauces are fairly shelf stable, so we like to stock up, which also saves on shipping. Furthermore, boutique sauces come and go: we are down to our last bottle of Satan's Revenge, an Indonesian-style sauce which I like on zucchini sticks, but which hasn't been produced in several years (it is still shown in the <a href="http://www.hotchilisauce.com/">web site photo</a>).</p><p>And there is always something new to try. For a while, the new hotness (sorry) was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Savina_pepper">Red Savina</a> peppers. We still have a bottle of <a href="http://www.melindas.com/sauces/redsavina.html">Melinda's</a> version. Now it is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhut_Jolokia_pepper">Bhut Jolokia</a> and we got the <a href="http://www.melindas.com/sauces/nagajolokia.html">Melinda's</a>, which is good on a grilled portabello mushroom, and the <a href="http://www.davesgourmet.peachhost.com/ct_PRdagphs.htm">Dave's Gourmet</a>, which I've yet to try, since I'm waiting for the bottle of Dave's Insanity, which I put on pumpkin kibbeh, to be finished. As one might imagine, these personal pairings help to justify a larder full of hot sauces.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2010/03/bhut-jolokia.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>Though that Wikipedia page has some dead news links, it does a reasonable job of summarizing the “new” world's hottest peppers: a group of related hybrids of mostly <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsicum_chinense">C. chinense</a></i> with some <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsicum_frutescens">C. frutescens</a></i> genetic material, from the area around <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam">Assam</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipur">Manipur</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagaland">Nagaland</a>. More comprehensive are <a href="http://www.fiery-foods.com/chile-pepper-gardening/127-other-stories-about-growing-chile-peppers/2363-saga-jolokia">Dave DeWitt's</a> and <a href="http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Caps_fru.html">Gernot Katzer's</a> pages.</p><p>Of particular interest are the names and their associated problems. <i>Bhut-jolokia</i> is sometimes glossed as 'ghost pepper', as though it were <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:2832.candrakanta">ভুত</a>-<a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:3524.candrakanta">জলকীয়া</a>, when in fact it is 'Bhotiya (Bhutanese) pepper', that is, <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:1804.candrakanta">ভোট-জলকীয়া</a>. Similarly, <i>Naga-jolokia</i> is claimed as 'serpent pepper' <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:6281.candrakanta">নাগ</a>-, rather than 'Naga (that is, related to the Nagas or Nagalim) pepper' নগা-. In a stricter transliteration scheme, like the one used by the <a href="http://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/assamese.pdf">Library of Congress</a>, the differences would be clearer: <span class="pv-xlit">bhut-jalakīyā</span>, vs. <span class="pv-xlit">bhoṭ-</span> and <span class="pv-xlit">nāga-</span> vs. <span class="pv-xlit">nagā-</span>. Though that may not be the whole story, since the other forms do occur in reliable sources like a <a href="http://www.xobdo.net/dic.php?w=Naga Jolokia&l=1">user-contributed dictionary</a> or an <a href="http://assamagribusiness.nic.in/Bhut%20jalakia.pdf">academic promotion</a>. Nor are all the actual names benign: <i>bih-jolokia</i> is indeed 'poison pepper', <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:1796.candrakanta">বিহ</a>-জলকীয়া. One of the names in Nagaland (though it isn't clear in what language(s) — perhaps Nagamese creole) is 'king of peppers', राज-मिरंच <span class="pv-xlit">rāja-mirca</span>.</p><p>This recent favor in the West was picked up and encouraged by the <a href="http://www.assamtimes.org/business/3391.html">Assam</a> and <a href="http://lamkatimes.blogspot.com/2009_09_01_archive.html">Manipur</a> news and <a href="http://videos.oneindia.in/watch/2922/king-chilli-cultivation.html">television</a> reporting from Nagaland (video starts playing right away). And so discussion in <a href="http://www.assam.org/node/2347">some</a> <a href="http://www.mail-archive.com/assam@assamnet.org/msg10173.html">blogs</a> helps to confirm and clarify the identifications in Assamese or <a href="http://a-perfect-bite.blogspot.com/2010/01/dear-theyie-thank-you-for-your-spicy.html">Naga</a> cuisine. And to offer some <a href="http://samaw.com/the-hottest-chilli-in-the-world-is-from-northeast-india/132">additional names</a> like <i>Sap Hmarcha</i> and <i>Sap Malta</i>. Or other related varieties like <i><a href="http://www.thehotpepper.com/showthread.php?16137-U-MOROK-The-mother-of-all-Jolokias">U Morok</a></i>. (<i>Hmarcha</i> and <i>morok</i> মরোক / <span style="font-family:Eeyek Unicode">ꯃꯔꯣꯀ</span> are clearly '<a href="http://www.xobdo.net/dic.php?w=chilli&l=1">chili pepper</a>' and so presumably is <i>malta</i>; <i>sap</i> might be '<a href="http://www.xobdo.net/dic.php?w=saap&l=14">snake</a>', or perhaps that's a coincidence. U is <a href="http://www.facebook.com/group.php?v=wall&gid=2397625718">apparently</a> 'tree'; that variety is <a href="http://mingudam.wordpress.com/2006/10/24/thangjing-u-morok/">eaten with some kind of water lily seed</a>.)</p><p>Still, Katzer's spice page raises the interesting question of just how old this super-hot pepper is in its native land. Here again, transliteration inconsistencies make searching somewhat less efficient. A Victorian <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=IYZJAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&dq=chilli#v=onepage&q=chilli&f=false">report</a> uses <i>jálika</i>. But the most common in the early 20th century seems to be <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=o2JEAAAAYAAJ&q=jalakia&dq=jalakia"><i>jalakia</i></a>. A <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=TepMAAAAIAAJ&q=jalakia&dq=jalakia">report</a> from just after independence lists some specific hot varieties, <i>Surjamukhi Jalakia</i> (সূৰ্য্যমুখী-জলকীয়া 'sunflower pepper') and <i>Kharika Jalakia</i> (খৰিক-জলকীয়া 'long slender stick pepper', still known as <a href="http://www.chileseeds.co.uk/hot_chili_pepper_seed.htm">Khorika Jolokia</a>), but they don't seem to match. However, <i>A Dictionary in Assamese and English</i> (1867) , which Wikipedia (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assamese_language#External_links">s.v.</a>) says was the first Assamese dictionary, has this entry (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=JgQVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA439&dq=pepper#v=onepage&q=pepper&f=false">p. 439</a>):</p><blockquote>ভোটমৰিচ, <i>s.</i> এবিখ সকত জলকীয়া, a species of large red pepper.</blockquote><p>Much as I would like to believe that <i>bhût-morich</i> then is the same as <i>bhût-jolokia</i> now, there really isn't anything remarkable about peppers from Bhutan in Assam, nor about red peppers, and large is relative. Now, it is true that <i>C. chinense</i> violate the ordinary hot pepper rule from <i>C. frutescens</i> like bird peppers or Thai chilis, that smaller is hotter. So there isn't anything to suggest this isn't it, either.</p><p>In any case, it seems that these new hottest peppers are consistently over one million <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scoville_scale">Scoville units</a>. Only twenty years ago, when the hot pepper craze in the USA was already in full swing, a cookbook author is quoted in the <i><a href="http://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/08/garden/rating-hot-peppers-mouth-vs-computer.html?pagewanted=all">New York Times</a> </i>as unable to even track down who <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilbur_Scoville">Wilbur Scoville</a> was, using then standard sources like the Library of Congress Authorities file. Now, in addition to those Wikipedia entries, it is easy to search pharmaceutical literature of the time and find dozens of <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=D0kfAQAAIAAJ&dq=scoville&q=scoville#v=snippet&q=scoville&f=false">research</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=oaVEAAAAYAAJ&dq=scoville&q=scoville#v=snippet&q=scoville&f=false">papers</a> on various topics authored by Scoville. One can even find, “A Note on Capsicums,” (note the plural, many sources cite it as singular), as <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=DI5NAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA370#v=onepage&q=&f=false">published</a> at the time of his presentation or the following year in the <i>Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association</i> with some comments and so the standard citation, either in the <a href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/113354455/abstract">digital version</a> of that journal, if you have access to a research library, or, otherwise in a <a href="http://web.mit.edu/kzhang/MacData/afs.course/other/kitchen-chem/www/research_papers/Scoville.test.pdf">copy</a> among the course materials for an <a href="http://web.mit.edu/kzhang/MacData/afs.course/other/kitchen-chem/www/">MIT course</a> on Kitchen Chemistry.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-36545582110704804692010-02-21T12:49:00.003-05:002010-02-22T04:04:56.133-05:00Zapiekanki<p>With all the students around, Boston's <a href="http://www.allstonvillage.com/events/tasteofallston.php">Allston Village</a> is chock-full of reasonably-priced restaurants: <a href="http://yomaboston.com/Site/Welcome_to_Yoma.html">Burmese</a> (with a separate vegetarian menu), <a href="http://grasshoppervegan.com/">vegan Vietnamese</a>, <a href="http://peaceopie.com/">vegan pizza</a>, <a href="http://azamagrill.com/">Egyptian falafel</a>, <a href="http://www.indiandhabaonline.com/">Indian Chinese</a>; plus old standbys like Tex-Mex, Korean-Japanese and checked-tablecloth Chianti-in-a-basket red-sauce Italian.</p><p>One of last year's new additions was <a href="http://www.zapsboston.com/">Zaps</a>, Polish street food. A <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapiekanka">zapiekanka</a></i> is a baguette sliced in half lengthwise, topped with shredded cheddar and mushrooms, melted / toasted, and finished off with ketchup. It's more interesting tasting than that might sound.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2010/02/zapiekanki.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>The name seems straightforward. <i>zapiekać</i> is the imperfective of <i>zapiec</i> 'to bake'. <i>zapiekany</i> is the passive participle; add the fairly productive <i>-k(a)</i> for resultative nouns and it's 'something baked'. There are, of course, various other forms of <i>zapiekać</i> in the only <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/1345515">Polish cookbook</a> I have. The <i>za-</i> prefix is a Slavic preposition with base meaning something like 'beyond'. <i>piec</i> is cognate with Russian <a href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?single=1&basename=/data/ie/vasmer&text_number=+10051&root=config">печь</a> 'oven' and so with PIE <span class="pv-xlit"><a href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?single=1&basename=/data/ie/pokorny&text_number=1466&root=config">*pekʷ</a></span> 'cook', whence also Greek <a href="http://artflx.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.58:4:69.LSJ">πέσσω</a> 'ripen; cook' and so <i>peptic</i>.</p><p>After we went there this weekend, I had another look around online and only then noticed that <i>zapiekanka</i> also means 'casserole'. There is a fairly clean split in English language sources between the two senses:</p><table border="0"><tr><td>Street food</td><td>Casserole</td></tr><tr><td><ul><li>Phrase books</li><li>Guide books</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Dictionaries</li><li>Cookbooks</li></ul></td></tr></table><p>An <a href="http://polish.slavic.pitt.edu/~swan/beta/main.php?sWord=zapiekanka">Online Polish-English dictionary</a> has both senses. An eponymous <a href="http://www.zapiekanki.pl/">recipe collection</a> seems to mostly be casseroles. But there are <a href="http://images.google.com/images?q=Zapiekanki">images</a> and YouTube <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_LI4EtI8f-I">cooking</a> <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Trni3aQjJX0">videos</a> of both sorts.</p><p>Not that this is all that surprising; both fit the base meaning perfectly. But now I am wondering whether there is a continuous semantic space (and what else is in it) and just how old this particular street food is. Hence this very short post. I would welcome informed comments.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-47980356142650619812010-01-30T09:27:00.011-05:002010-03-05T22:17:25.850-05:00Pineapple<p>Other demands on my time have made posting here rather spotty, but I have always tried to keep notes on possible posts for when some time appears. One of the 17th century sources cited for <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2008/01/peanut.html">peanuts</a> (with a small diversion on <a href="http://www.languagehat.com/archives/002843.php">sharks</a>) was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Du_Tertre">Jean-Baptiste du Tertre</a>. In the same work, <i>Histoire generales des Antilles habitees par les Francais</i> (1667), he has a <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k114021k/f151.chemindefer">chapter</a> on “l'Ananas, le Roy des fruits” 'pineapple, the king of fruits'.</p><p>Having recently finished <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/6253992">The Pineapple: King of Fruits</a></i> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran_Beauman">Fran Beauman</a>, I was reminded of this and of an analogy:</p><div class="post-summary"><blockquote>orange ∶ orangery ∷ pineapple ∶ ______</blockquote><p><a href="/2010/01/pineapple.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><blockquote>orange ∶ orangery ∷ pineapple ∶ pinery</blockquote><p>Beauman's book is still in print, though I am not sure there is an American edition yet. It covers the history of pineapples from Christopher Columbus to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Drummond_Dole">James Drummond Dole</a>. (Note how one of the Wikipedia editor's uses of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginaca_machine">ginaca machine</a> isn't capitalized. Beauman only mentions the engineer by name, but it's used several times without even <i>machine</i> in <a href="http://www.garyokihiro.com/">Gary Y. Okihiro</a>'s <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/8573484"><i>Pineapple Culture</i></a>, a book that uses pineapple as the common thread for the story of race and empire in the tropics and Hawaii in particular. That is, at least in an appropriate context, <i>ginaca</i> has become a common noun.)</p><p>Beauman's book surveys pineapples in English literature from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding">John Locke</a>'s <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0XErAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA28#v=onepage&q=%22tafte%20of%20a%20pine-apple%22&f=false">taste of a pineapple</a> to Wallace Stevens' academic piece “Someone Puts a Pineapple Together” (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=-D4UAAAAIAAJ&dq="io+juventes+o+filii"">snippet only</a>). (Though a quotation from the <i>Wake</i> <a href="http://www.trentu.ca/faculty/jjoyce/fw-170.htm">cataloguing</a> Shem's lowly preference for canned foods is somewhat turned around by leaving out the botulism part.)</p><p>A major theme of the book is the role of pineapple in the emergent English (and to a lesser extent American) consumer culture. And the now mostly forgotten mania for growing pineapples in hothouses in Northern Europe.</p><p>Beauman wrote shorter pieces on the pineapple for <i>Petits Propos Culinaires</i> (<a href="http://www.kal69.dial.pipex.com/shop/pages/ppc73.htm">73</a>) before and <i>Cabinet</i> (<a href="http://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/23/index.php">Fruits</a>) after. The former covered the associations from the start as the finest of fruit and possible causes (including the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_ratio">Golden Mean</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number">Fibonacci series</a>) and the latter the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunmore_Pineapple">Dunmore Pineapple</a> and aristocratic cultivation efforts.</p><p>Consequently, this post will more easily stay (mostly) to the main focus of this blog.</p><hr><p>The word for 'pineapple' in most languages is something like <i>ananas</i>. This comes from the Tupi-Guarani name for the fruit, <i>na´na</i>, which I have seen glossed variously as 'fragrant' and 'excellent'. (Some sources, such as <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=u2oPAAAAYAAJ&dq=ananas tupi&lr=&client=firefox-a&pg=PA4#v=onepage&q=ananas&f=false">Skeat</a>, also claim that <i>nana</i> is the plant and <i>anana</i> the fruit.)</p><p>The word is first reported by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/André_Thévet">André Thevet</a>, who writes (<i><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Singularitez_de_la_France_antarctique">Singularitez de la France antarctique</a></i>, 1558, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k109516t.image.f191.pagination">pp. 89-90</a>):</p><blockquote>Le fruit duquel plus cõmunemẽt ils vſent en leurs maladies, eſt nommé <i>Nana</i>, gros comme vne moyenne citrouille, fait tout autour cõme vne pomme de pin, anſi que pourrez voir par la preſente figure. Ce fruit deuient iaune en maturité, lequel eſt merueilleuſement excellent, tant pour ſa douceur que ſaueur, autant amoureuſe que fin ſucre, & plus.<p>The fruit which they most commonly use for their illnesses is named <i>nana</i>, as big as a medium pumpkin, formed overall like a pinecone, as you can see from the present figure. This fruit turns yellow when ripe; it is marvelously excellent, as much for the sweetness as the taste, as lovely as fine sugar, and more so.</p></blockquote><p>And in the form <i>ananas</i> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_Léry">Jean de Léry</a>'s <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_d'un_voyage_fait_en_la_terre_du_Brésil"><i>Histoire d'un voyage faict en la terre du Brésil</i></a>:</p><blockquote><p>… Premierement la plante qui produit le fruict nommé par les Sauuages <i>Ananas</i> eſt de figure ſemblable aux glaieuls, & encores, ayant les fueilles vn peu courbees & canelees tout alentour, plus aprochãtes de celles d'Aloes. Elle croiſt auſsi non ſeulement emmoncelee comme vn grand Chardon, mais auſsi ſon fruict:, qui eſt de la groſſeur d'vn moyen Melõ, & de façon comme les Pommes de Pin, ſans pendre ny pancher d'vn coſté ni d'autre, viẽt de la propre ſorte de nos Artichaux.</p><p>Ces <i>Ananas</i> au ſurplus, eſtans venus à leur maturité, ſont de couleur iaune azuré, & ont vne telle odeur de frarnboiſe, que non ſeulement en allant par les bois on les ſent de loin, mais auſſi quant à leur gouſt fondans en la bouche, & eſtans naturellement ſi doux qu'il ny a confitures de ce pays qui les ſurpaſſent, ie tiẽs que ceſt le plus excellẽt fruict de l'Amerique. … (1578 ed., <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k52545t.image.f260.langEN">p. 211</a>)</p><p>… First, the plant that produces the fruit called by the savages <i>ananas</i>, has a form like that of a gladiolus, but with leaves slightly curved and hollowed all around, more like the aloe's. It grows compacted like a great thistle; its fruit, related to our artichoke, is as big as a medium-sized melon, and shaped like a pinecone, but does not hang or bend to one side or the other.</p><p>When these <i>ananas</i> have come to maturity, and are of an iridescent yellow, they have such a fragrance of raspberry that when you go through the woods [and other places where they grow], you can smell them from far off; and as for the taste, it melts in your mouth, and it is naturally so sweet that we have no jams that surpass them; I think it is the finest fruit in America. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=F8qqKoCSWVkC&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q=ananas&f=false">Whatley</a>, translating a slightly newer edition, such as <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k580169.image.f300.langEN">this</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Interestingly, another Tupi-Guarani term for the fruit, <span class="pv-xlit">ïu̯a-ka´ti</span> 'fragrant fruit' (confirming de Léry's account), gives Portuguese <i>abacaxi</i>. (In Brazilian slang, both <i>abacaxi</i> and <i>banana</i> can mean 'mess; problem'.) Remarkably, though this word is presumed to date from the 18th century, it isn't found in print until <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=1ToTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA18#v=onepage&q=abacachís&f=false">1833</a>.</p><p>Other native names are given by Spanish explorer-conquerers (and Catholic missionaries). <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonzalo_Fernández_de_Oviedo_y_Valdés">Oviedo</a> gave some for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taíno#Food_and_agriculture">Taíno</a> in his <i>Historia general y natural de las Indias</i>:</p><blockquote>Hay en esta Isla Española unos cardos, que cada uno dellos lleva una piña (ó mejor diçiendo alcarchopha), puesto que porque paresçe piña las llaman los cripstianos piñas, sin lo ser. Esta es una de las mas hermosas fructas que yo he visto en todo lo que del mundo he andado. … Dixe de suso que estas piñas son de diversos géneros y assí es verdad, en espeçial de tres maneras. A unas llaman <i>yayama</i>, á otras dic,en <i>boniama</i>; é á otras <i>yayagua</i>. (Lib. VII, Cap. xiv, <a href="http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/05816284255727262232268/ima0377.htm">pp. 280-283</a>)<p>On this island of Hispaniola there are some thistles, each of which produces a pineapple (or, better said, an artichoke), because it looks like what Spaniards call a pinecone, yet without being one. This is one of the most beautiful fruits I have seen in all the world in which I have travelled. … I said above that these pineapples come in different species, and this is true, especially three kinds. Some are called <i>yayama</i>, others <i>boniama</i>, and others <i>yayagua</i>. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=gm-tuJNH9sMC&pg=PA159#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Myers</a>)</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Hernández_de_Toledo">Francisco Hernández</a> gives one for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> in his <i>Plantas y Animales de la Nueva España</i> (1615, <a href="http://alfama.sim.ucm.es/dioscorides/consulta_libro.asp?ref=B2176086X">here</a>, then Ir a Imagen 345 de 429):</p><blockquote><p>Esta peregrina planta, que los yndios llamã, matzatli, cuyo origen dizen ser del brasil, de adonde la traxeron, y de aqui se à communicado à las yslas, y aun à las yndias orientales, à donde le llaman, Ananas, y los Españoles que viuen en este nueuo mundo, Piña, por la semejança que este fruto tiene con las piñas, es vna planta que produze las ojas como las del lyrio, pero espinossa à modo de las del cardo, la rayz hebrossa y gruessa, la qual planta produze sola vna piña, rodeada de muchos pinpollos nacidos à la redonda y en la cumbre del dicho fruto, los quales quitados y sembrados cada vn pinpollo de por si, hechan luego muchas y nueuas rayzes, y nace otra piña en estremo, semejante à nuestras piñas como auemos dicho, rodeada de los mismos pinpollos, al principio sale la fruta bermeja, pero andando el tiempo quedando el pinpollo bermejeando, se pone la piña amarilla como rubia.</p><p>This wandering plant, which the Indians call <i>matzatli</i>, is said to originate from Brazil, from which they brought it, and from here it was spread to the island and even to the Eastern Indians, where they call it <i>ananas</i>; and the Spaniards who live in this New World call it <i>piña</i>, on account of the resemblance which this fruit has to pinecones; it is a plant which produces leaves like those of the lily, but spiny like those of a thistle; the roots are many-threaded and thick; each such plant produces a single pineapple, surrounded by many buds [suckers] born from around and on top of said fruit; when these are removed and each bud planted by itself, many new roots are formed, and another pineapple is born on the end, resembling our pinecones as I already said; it is surrounded by the same sort of buds; at first the fruit comes out red, the bud becoming reddish as time goes by, and then it gets as yellow as a blonde.</p></blockquote><p>And his <i>Rerum medicarum Novae Hispaniae thesaurus</i> gave one of the earliest illustrations of a pineapple (1651 edition <a href="http://alfama.sim.ucm.es/dioscorides/consulta_libro.asp?ref=x533816776">here</a>, Imagen 349 de 1083).</p><p><i>Achupalla</i> is given for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aymara_language">Aymara</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovico_Bertonio">Ludovico Bertonio</a> <i>Vocabulario de la lengua aymara</i> (1612, p. 168) and for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quechua">Quechua</a> by <a href="http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_González_Holguín">Diego González Holguín</a>'s <i>Vocabulario de la lengua general de todo el Perú llamada lengua Qquichua o del inca</i> (1608, p. 6). These are downloadable as huge PDF files from <a href="http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/documento_detalle.asp?id=MC0014761">here</a> and <a href="http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/documento_detalle.asp?id=MC0033184">here</a>, respectively; the former is also in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=aGQSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA368#v=onepage&q=Achupa-lla&f=false">Google Books</a>. (It also gives <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=QjkLAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q=chulu achupalla&f=false">chulu</a></i> as the name of the plant.)</p><p>As pineapples spread, they were occasionally named after other existing fruit that they resembled. For instance, in Hawaiian, it is <i>hala kahiki</i> 'foreign <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandanus_tectorius">Pandanus</a>'. (Note that while Tahiti is the canonical foreign place in Polynesian, there is no indication that <i>Kahiki</i> is meant to be a proper noun to claim is that they come from there. Also cf. <span class="pv-xlit">ʻuala kahiki</span> 'potato', literally 'foreign sweet potato', like <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/07/potato.html">洋山芋 <i>yang2 shan1yü4</i> or มันฝรั่ง <i>man farang</i></a>.) In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumba">Sumba</a>, pineapple is (or was) known as <i><a href="http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/11239896">panda djawa</a></i> 'Pandanus from Java'.</p><p>In Persian, Urdu, and Arabic, 'pineapple' is normally انناس <span class="pv-xlit">ananās</span> or اناناس <span class="pv-xlit">anānās</span>. But the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain-i-Akbari">Ain-i-Akbari</a></i> says, “<i>Pineapples</i> are also called <i>Kat'hal i Safarí</i>, or the jackfruits for travels, because young plants, put into a vessel, may be taken on travels, and will yield fruits.” (Blochmann's translation, <a href="http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D00702051%26ct%3D66">p. 68</a>. I have not been able to locate the Persian text online — <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eKMIAAAAQAAJ&q=fasciculus&f=false#v=snippet">this</a> is the second part; so is <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=b609AAAAYAAJ&pg=PT9#v=onepage&q=&f=false">this</a>, just collated differently — or at an accessible library. The same site has a translation of the later <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuzk-e-Jahangiri">Tuzk-i-Jahangiri</a></i>, which also <a href="http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D11001081%26ct%3D4">mentions</a> pineapples at the Mughal court coming from Portuguese ports.) On the claimed etymology of کتهل سفری <span class="pv-xlit">kaṭhal-i-safarī</span>, Hobson-Jobson says (s.v. <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:51.hobson">ananas</a>):</p><blockquote>Abul Faẓl, in the <i>Āīn</i>, mentions that the fruit was also called <i>kaṭhal-i-safarī</i>, or 'travel jack-fruit,' “because young plants put into a vessel may be taken on travels and will yield fruits.” This seems a nonsensical pretext for the name, especially as another American fruit, the Guava, is sometimes known in Bengal as the <i>Safarīām</i>, or 'travel mango.' It has been suggested by one of the present writers that these cases may present an uncommon use of the word <i>safarī</i> in the sense of 'foreign' or 'outlandish,' just as Clusius says of the pine-apple in India, “<i>peregrinus</i> est hic fructus,” and as we begin this article by speaking of the ananas as having 'travelled' from its home in S. America. … The lamented Prof. Blochmann, however, in a note on this suggestion, would not admit the possibility of the use of <i>safarī</i> for 'foreign.' He called attention to the possible analogy of the Ar. <i>safarjal</i> for 'quince.' …</blockquote><p>Many other Asian names are likewise derived from <i>ananas</i>, including Tamil அன்னாசி <span class="pv-xlit">aṉṉāci</span> and Burmese <span style="font-family:Code2000">နာနတ်</span> <i>nanat</i>. And Sub-Saharan Africa: so, Burton's <i>Lake Regions</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=860GgNJcI0AC&pg=PA35&#v=onepage&q=mananazi&f=false">p. 35</a> of the JRGS report):</p><blockquote>The mánánázi or pine-apple grows luxuriantly as far as three marches from the coast. It is never cultivated, nor have its qualities as a fibrous plant been discovered.</blockquote><p>The enthusiastic reviews by Europeans given above are typical and more like that are easy to find. For instance, here is du Tertre, as mentioned in the introduction to the post:</p><blockquote>Ie peux à treſ-juſte titre appeller l'Ananas, le Roy des fruits, parce qu'il eſt le plus beau, & le meilleur de tous ceux qui ſont ſur la terre. C'eſt ſans doute pour cette raiſon, que le Roy des Roys luy a mis une couronne ſur la teſte, qui eſt comme une marque eſſentielle de ſa Royauté, puis qu'à la cheute du père, il produit un ieune Roy qui luy ſuccede en toutes ſes admirables qualitez : … (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cEeK8C7OiBQC&pg=RA1-PA127">p. 127</a>)<p>I can quite rightly call the Pineapple the King of fruits, because it is the most beautiful, and the best of all those which are on earth. It is no doubt for this reason that the King of Kings has placed a cron on its head, as an essential mark of its royalty; then at the fall of the father, it produces a young King who succeeds him in all his admirable qualities.</p></blockquote><p>A <a name="mystery">mystery</a> among all these early accolades is one claimed for de Léry (see above). It is repeated by ordinarily reliable sources, such as <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/819885">Sturtevant's Edible Plants of the World</a></i> and <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/176559"><i>Food</i> by Waverley Root</a>. And in Collins' <a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1570799"><i>Pineapple</i></a> and Beauman's <i>PPC</i> essay (but not her book). Here is the version from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lindley">Lindley</a>'s <i>The Treasury of Botany</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=FdknAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q=&f=false">p. 60</a>):</p><blockquote>Three hundred years ago it was described by Jean de Lery, a Huguenot priest, as being of such excellence that the gods might luxuriate upon it, and that it should only be gathered by the hand of a Venus.</blockquote><p>Which seems to be the source used by Sturtevant at least. It is not inconceivable that a Huguenot priest would make such an allusion. (Venus is not usually a gardener, though she says through <a href="http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0029:book=10:line=560">Ovid</a> that she picked some “golden apples” — whether these are oranges or quinces is another topic — from her island of Cyprus for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippomenes">Hippomenes</a> to use to distract Atalanta.) But there does not seem to be any such passage in his published work. At least I have not found it in any of the French editions of the <i>Histoire</i> or the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3ul4g22skfAC&pg=PT225#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Latin translation</a>. Versions even show up in French works, often in guillemets, but apparently as translations from Lindley's English. Before that, it appears in <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ykIZAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA193">Floriculture Magazine</a></i> (1840), where it's Jean de Leary. And the remaining sources are the works of <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eCsCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA81&#v=onepage&q=charles mcintosh&f=false">Charles McIntosh</a>: <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xkJJAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA641#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Book of the Garden</a></i> (1855), <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=wigMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA273">The Orchard</a></i> (1839), <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=sP4TAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA503">The Practical Gardener</a></i> (1828). The earliest even says, “in the inflated style of those early times,” which certainly suggests that he found the quotation in an older source. If it were before 1716, there might be some mention in Lochner's extensive <i>Commentatio de Ananasa sive nuce Pinea indica Vulgo Pinas</i> (<a href="http://webapps.fundp.ac.be/moretus/igalerie/?img=3984">online</a>). And nothing similar is in EEBO or ECCO. So I do not know where it came from (and would welcome suggestions).</p><p>Of course, the three most popular languages in the world are exceptions to the <i>ananas</i> rule. English <i>pineapple</i>, modeled after Spanish <i>piña</i>, is due to the resemblance of the fruit to a pinecone. Originally, <i>pineapple</i> in fact meant 'pinecone', as <i><a href="http://gtb.inl.nl/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=WNT&id=M053614&lemmodern=pijnappel">pijnappel</a></i> still does in Dutch. So, a contemporary translation of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Huyghen_van_Linschoten">Linschoten</a> can be:</p><blockquote>Ananas, van die Canarijns Ananasa geheeten; van die Brasilianen Nana, ende van anderen in Hispaniola, Iaiama; van die Spaengiaerden in Brasyl, Pinas, om eenighe ghelijckenisse die dese vrucht heeft met die Pijnappel; (<a href="http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/?/en/items/KONB10:000000000000005K/">here</a>, p. 212 – 269 from the menu)<p><i>Ananas</i> by the <i>Canarijns</i> called <i>Ananaſa</i>, by the <i>Braſilians Nana</i>, and by others in <i>Hiſpaniola Iaiama</i>: by the Spaniards in <i>Braſilia Pinas</i>, becauſe of a certain reſemblance which the fruite hath with the Pine apple. (<i>Iohn Huighen van Linschoten. his discours of voyages into ye Easte & West Indies</i>, 1598, <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:12101:96">p. 90</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Which almost always warrants a footnote in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nQG48NvRqcEC&pg=PA17#v=onepage&q=&f=false">modern editions</a> in either language. Some dialects of Spanish have <i>ananá</i> and English did have <i>ananas</i> for a time. It's in Johnson's dictionary, with a quotation from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Thomson_(poet)">James Thomson</a>'s <i>Seasons</i>:</p><blockquote>Witneſs, thou beſt Anâna, thou the pride<br>Of vegetable life, beyond whate'er<br>The poets imag'd in the golden age: (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Tk87AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA72&dq=anana">685-687</a>)</blockquote><p>Pineapple is naturally included in the great herbals and plant lists of the period when scientific botany was emerging, which therefore propose various classifications:</p><ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Clusius">Clusius</a>: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoticorum_libri_decem"><i>Exoticorum libri decem</i></a> (1605), Cap. XLIV, <a href="http://imgbase-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr/displayimage.php?album=338&pos=300">pp. 284-285</a>, “De Ananas.”</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspard_Bauhin">C. Bauhin</a>, <i>Pinax</i> (1623), Lib. X, Sect. vi, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k97448m.image.f407.langEN">p. 384</a>, “Carduus Brasilianus foliis Aloës.” 'Brazilian thistle with aloe leaves'</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Bauhin">J. Bauhin</a>, <i>Historiae plantarum universalis</i> (1650), T. 3, Lib. xxv, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k98008h.image.f104.langEN">pp. 94-95</a>, “Nana sive Strobilus Peruvianus.” '<i>Nana</i> or Peruvian cone'</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_de_Lobel">Lobel</a>, <i>Icones Stirpium</i> (1581), <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k98044c.image.f382.langEN">p. 375</a>, “Aizoi maioris ortu persimilis exotica planta.” 'exotic plant similar to a descendent of a large sempervivum (aloe?)'</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Parkinson_(botanist)">John Parkinson</a>, <i>Theatrum Botanicum</i> (1640), Vol. II, Chap. LXXXV, <a title="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:22703:824" href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:22703:824">pp. 1626-1627</a>, “Anana seu Pina.” He also adds a qualification to his praise: <blockquote>But this <i>Pinas</i> as I ſaid, ſurpaſſeth all other fruites of the Weſt Indies, for pleaſantneſſe and wholeſomeneſſe, ſo that many eate them abundantly, and thinke they cannot ſufficiently be ſatisfied with them, but the ſurfet of them is dangerous, even as it is uſuall of the beſt fruits :</blockquote></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Plukenet">Leonard Plukenet</a>, <i>Phytographia</i> (1691), <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vTEsnCcczB4C&pg=PA29#v=onepage&q=ananas&f=false">p. 29</a>.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Sloane">Hans Sloane</a>, <i>Catalogus Plantarum quae in Insula Jaimaica</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=YWE-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA77#v=onepage&q=&f=false">p. 77-79</a>.</li></ul><p>Then, both books and pineapples were still relative rarities. But with the establishment of industrial printing and the progression of pineapple growing from mysterious failure to aristocratic folly to upper middle class hobby, the number of works giving detailed instructions for the construction of pineapple growing buildings and their use increased dramatically. And while these are now somewhat rare except for specialized booksellers and larger (and older) libraries, they are just the books that recent massive digitization efforts have done best on. Waves of improvements in transportation brought fresh imported pineapples, then canned, and fresh again. So this is mostly all forgotten, just like the words <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=mhQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA447&dq=pine-stove+pinery#v=onepage&q=pine-stove pinery&f=false"><i>pinery</i> and <i>pine-stove</i></a>. (<i>Pine stove</i> is a better search key than <i>pinery</i>, since the latter has several other meanings; for instance, the house in Germantown where <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=XuwQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1">Louisa May Alcott was born</a> was called <i>The Pinery</i> on account of the trees surrounding it.)</p><p>Some examples (for books before 1906, there is <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=bTrOAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA3-PR35#v=onepage&q=&f=false">this bibliography</a> by Harold Hume of the University of Florida Agricultural Experiment Station):</p><ul><li>Pieter de la Court-van der Voort (1664-1739; he doesn't have a Wikipedia page — even in Dutch — though his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter_de_la_Court">father</a> does), <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZR0OAAAAQAAJ">Byzondere aenmerkingen over het aanleggen van pragtige en gemeene landhuizen, lusthoven, plantagien en aenklevende cieraeden</a></i> (1737). As so often happens, the scan does not manage to capture the large fold-out pages, <a href="http://www.geschiedenisvanzuidholland.nl/verhalen/archiefstuk/440/Ananas-(1737)">one of which</a> is of a pineapple.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Bradley_(botanist)">Richard Bradley</a>, <i>“<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4Ok1AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA274#v=onepage&q=&f=false">An Account of the </a></i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4Ok1AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA274#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Ananas, <i>or </i>Weſt-Indian Pine-Apple, <i>as it now flourishes in Sir </i>Matthew Decker's <i>Gardens at </i>Richmond <i>in </i>Surrey, <i style>under the Care and Management of his ingenious Gardiner Mr. </i>Henry Telende</a>” (1726). De la Court waited until late in life to write the preceding book, though he was the first to construct a working pinery.</li><li>id., “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WrMCAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q=&f=false">A particular easy Method of managing the Ananas or Pine-Apple, …</a>” (1739)</li><li>Adam Taylor (gardener near <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devizes">Devizes</a>), <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=URsAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q=&f=false">A Treatise on the Ananas or Pine-apple: Containing plain and eaſy Directions for raiſing this Moſt excellent Fruit without Fire, and in much higher Perfection Than from the Stove</a></i> (1769).</li><li><i>Dictionnaire des jardiniers</i>, “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=tiUPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA181#v=onepage&q=ananas&f=false">Ananas</a>” (1785). Actually, I haven't found any comparable French sources; this is just a translation of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Miller">Miller</a>'s <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0FsZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT81#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Dictionary</a></i>.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Claudius_Loudon">J. C. Loudon</a>, <i><a href="http://www.archive.org/details/differentmodesof00loudrich">The different modes of cultivating the pine-apple</a></i> (1822). Inexplicably <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8J8HAQAAIAAJ">snippet view</a> in Google Books.</li><li>id., <i>The Suburban Horticulturist</i>, “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=09pBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA443#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Culture of the Pine-apple, and Management of the Pinery</a>” (1843).</li><li><i>The Journal of Horticulture, Cottage Gardener, and Country Gentleman</i>, “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4E6BOyciFYYC&pg=PA288&#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Construction of a Pine Stove</a>” (April 11, 1865).</li><li><i>Tilton's Journal of Horticulture and Florist's Companion</i>, “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=IflIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA309#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Pine Growing Simplified</a>” (1870). Up until a year before that, <i>The American Journal of …</i>.</li><li>John Fleming (gardener at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilmahew_Castle">Kilmahew Castle</a>), <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UVoDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA17#v=onepage&q=&f=false">A Treatise on the Vine, Pine-apple, Peach, Plum, Nectarine &c, Adapted for the Use of Cottagers and Amateur Gardeners</a></i> (1872).</li><li>Wilhelm Hampel (Gartendirektor in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopice,_Opole_Voivodeship">Koppitz</a> in Schlesien), <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=5BVCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Handbuch der frucht- und gemüsetreiberei: Vollständige anleitung um ananas …</a></i> (1898).</li></ul><p>The Wikipedia stub article on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineapple_pit">Pineapple pit</a>, to which the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinery">Pinery</a> disambiguation page points, looks to have been quickly thrown together from a single pamphlet. Some obvious potential improvements (<small>I know, I could do it myself</small>):</p><ul><li>Add some synonyms, at least the ones that point to that page.</li><li>Pineries were originally developed in the Netherlands, not just the UK.</li><li>Most of the major developments were in Georgian times, not Victorian. In fact, the one that the article is based on is Georgian.</li><li>Many (though not this one, apparently) burn tanner's bark, not manure, or a mixture.</li><li>No mention is made <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Smit">Tim Smit</a>, even though he already has a Wikipedia page and wrote a book on <i>The Lost Gardens of Heligan</i> giving the story of presenting the second modern pineapple grown there to the Queen.</li><li>There are a number of relevant books from the period online, Beauman's history of pineapples, and similar cultural histories of greenhouses.</li></ul><p>And, of course, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=aS4oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA425#v=onepage&q=Pineries &f=false">here</a> is a cautionary note from the Dec. 29, 1787 number of a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hLfQAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA888#v=onepage&q=%22monro%20thomas%201764%201815%22&f=false">Thomas Monro</a>'s periodical <i>Olla Podrida</i>:</p><blockquote>of Fathers who have beggared their Families to enjoy the Pleaſure of ſeeing Green-houſes and Pineries ariſe under their Inſpection;</blockquote><p>Pineapples were grown in even more improbable places. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_De_Geer">Charles De Geer</a> grew them on his <a href="http://www.redigera.info/vallonbruken/visa/visa_startsida_avd.asp?Kategori=Bruk&Avdelning=010&Sidrubrik=Lövstabruk">Leufsta</a> estate. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Ivanovich_Shuvalov">Peter Ivanovich Shuvalov</a> introduced them to fashionable parties in Russia and they were grown there by the time of Catherine the Great.</p><p>In his footnote to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Onegin">Eugene Onegin</a>'s ананасом золотым 'golden pineapple' (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4kJ7KGYDgp0C&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=%22%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BC%22#v=onepage&q=%22%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%20%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BC%22&f=false">I. xvi.</a>; the stanza inventories a luxurious dinner also including truffles and comet year wine<small> — I think there was a bottle of comet brandy around here once</small>), Nabokov supposes that, “everybody remembers the kindly lines in James Thomson's <i>Summer</i> (1727),” (see link above) and then quotes them anyway. He resumes, “of less repute is a short poem by William Cowper, <i>The Pineapple and the Bee</i> (1779)” (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_Ho4AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA284#v=onepage&q=&f=false">here</a>), and then doesn't quote any of it, even though it's more perhaps more relevant, being concerned with whether some things should be reserved for those who are entitled to them. Beauman notes that despite this Cowper himself had a pinery. These kinds of decadent associations led to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Mayakovsky">Mayakosky</a>'s <a href="http://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%88%D1%8C_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B,_%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B1%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%B6%D1%83%D0%B9_%28%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%29">slogan</a>, “Ешь ананасы, рябчиков жуй, / день твой последний приходит, буржуй.” 'Eat your pineapples, chew your grouse; / Your last day is coming, bourgeois [louse].' Which in turn inspired <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Sellars">Peter Sellars</a>, while still a senior at <a href="http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~arts/af2001/medal.html">Harvard</a>, to include a giant pineapple in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Repertory_Theater">A.R.T.</a>'s first season production of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Government_Inspector">The Inspector General</a></i>. (<small>I have not had any luck digging up a photo of that set; all their site has is <a href="http://www.americanrepertorytheater.org/inside/articles/articles-vol-5-i4c-four-mens-land">this</a>.</small>)</p><p>The obsessive General Tilney in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northanger_Abbey">Northanger Abbey</a></i> had a surprisingly productive (despite his fretting) <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=by8JAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA133&dq=pinery#v=onepage&q=pinery&f=false">pinery</a>. The <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_1kJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA366&dq=pinery#v=onepage&q=pinery&f=false">Bank Director</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dombey_and_Son"><i>Dombey and Son</i></a> had one too.</p><p>In praise of the pineapples raised by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_M%C3%BCnchhausen">Otto von Münchhausen</a> (see <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Fzw7AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA485&q=ananas">here</a>), Leibniz wrote (<i>Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zvZaAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA256#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Chap. IV, §. 11</a>):</p><blockquote>tous les voyageurs du monde ne nous auroient pû donner par leur relations ce que nous devons à un gentilhomme de ce pays, qui cultive avec ſucces des <i>Ananas </i>à trois lieues d' Hannovre preſque ſur le bord du Weſer & a trouvé le moyen de les multiplier en ſorte que nous les pourrons avoir peut-être un jour de notre crû auſſi copieuſement que les oranges de Portugal, quoiqu'il y auroit apparemment quelque déchet dans le goût.<p>all the travelers of the world would not have given us through their accounts what we owe to a gentleman of this country, who successfully grows pineapples three leagues from Hannover near the banks of the Weser and has found a means of multiplying them so that perhaps we shall have them one day of our own growth as abundantly as oranges from Portugal, though there will apparently be some loss in the taste.</p></blockquote><p>In the meantime, pineapples had spread to tropical Asia, where they could grow naturally, and so were also becoming associated with the East.</p><p>In the chapter “Voltaire's Coconuts” in Ian Buruma's <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/139034">Anglomania</a></i> (that title is used for the whole book in a UK edition; the proposal in the entry on Government is that one should try the English form, with its guaranteed liberties, everywhere, just as one should at least try to grow coconuts, native to India, in Bosnia and Serbia), the author relates that Voltaire tried to grow pineapples at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferney#Voltaire">Ferney</a>. In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionnaire_philosophique"><i>Philosophical Dictionary</i></a> (<small>that Wikipedia article badly needs some editing</small>), s.v. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=c_oGAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Loix</a> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Xw9IAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA205#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Laws</a>), Voltaire tells a story of some Jews of the time of Vespasian stranded on the island of Padrabranca in the Maldives (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedra_Branca,_Singapore">Pedra Branca</a> is actually near Singapore). “… on y trouve les plus gros cocos & les meilleurs ananas du monde” 'there one finds the largest coconuts and the best pineapples in the world'. (Of course Voltaire probably knew that pineapples wouldn't have grown there back then. The story revolves around the refusal of a pious Essene to marry what might be the last Jewish women to preserve the race, on account of Mosaic Law; when the castaways move to a nearby populated island, where the law says that all strangers are automatically slaves, he refuses to believe there is such a law because it isn't in the Torah, but is made a slave anyway.)</p><p>In particular, pineapples became a common design element in Chinoiserie, as in the “Chinese” (or maybe “Indian”) garden pavilion in <a href="http://www.veitshoechheim.de/Inhaltsseiten/unser_ort/rokokoundschloss.html">Veitshöchheim</a> built for <a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Friedrich_von_Seinsheim">Prince Bishop Friedrich von Seinsheim</a> by <a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Dietz">Ferdinand Dietz</a>. (See <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/1201322">Chinese Influence on European Garden Structures</a></i>, pp. 183-184 and fig. 49. Its <a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/164578131">source</a> hasn't been scanned that I can find. The other reference it gives is in <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1480760">JSTOR</a> with a tiny photo. There is a <a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/falkenlust/2765748695/">Flickr photo</a> but only in one size.) Or the several Beauvais Tapestries known as <a href="http://www.linternaute.com/musee/diaporama/1/7166/musee-leblanc-duvernoy/5/33149/la-recolte-des-ananas/">La Récolte des Ananas</a>.</p><p>And, of course, this continues today. One can purchase <a href="http://www.saveontapestries.com/tapestries/La-Recolte-Des-Ananas-871.htm">reproductions</a> of the tapestry and a <a href="http://www.indecoroustaste.com/2009/12/pineapple-follies.html">decorating blogger</a> was inspired by the Dunmore Pineapple to make her own interior-size folly.</p><p>In Chinese, 'pineapple' is 菠蘿 (simplified 菠萝) <i>bo1luo2</i>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a>'s <i>China Illustrata</i> (1667) says (<a href="http://diglib.hab.de/drucke/gv-2f-5/start.htm?image=00248">p. 188</a>; also in <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k111090s.image.f217.langEN">Gallica</a>; the <a href="http://kircher.stanford.edu/">Stanford</a> site appears to have rotted), “tanti & tam exquiſiti ſaporis, ut inter nobiliſſimos <i>Indiæ</i> ac <i>Chinæ</i> fructus primum facilè locum obtineat” 'such is the taste that the fruit easily holds first place among the nobles of India and China'. The baroque engraving on the facing page shows a farmer planting some while an ape eats one; only the first two characters of the name given there, <i>Fam polo nie</i>, are drawn in it. Kircher's source was the Polish Jesuit <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michał_Boym">Michael Boym</a>, whose <i><a href="http://webapps.fundp.ac.be/moretus/flora_sinensis/006-flora-sinensis.html">Flora Sinensis</a></i> (1656) has plates for 反波羅密 <i>Fan•Po•Lo•Mie</i> (<i>fan1 bo1luo2mi4</i>) 'pineapple' and 波羅密 <i>Po•Lo•Mie</i> (<i>bo1luo2mi4</i>) 'jackfruit' (I do not know how to deep link to that facsimile; the first is Plate G at position 34 and the second Plate L). That is, pineapple is 'foreign jackfruit' (like <span class="pv-xlit">kaṭhal-i-safarī</span>), more properly written with 番 <i>fan1</i>. As <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Bretschneider">Bretschneider</a> points out (<i>Early European Researches into the Flora of China</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=g4JIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q=Po+lo+mie&f=false">p. 23</a>), 波羅密 <i>bo1luo2mi4</i> is apparently a transcription of Sanskrit पारमिता <i>pāramitā</i> 'transcendent; excellent'. That is certainly true in the Buddhist context, where the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pāramitā#Mahayana_Buddhism">Six Perfections</a> is <a href="http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/六度">六波羅蜜</a> <i>liu4</i> <i>bo1luo2mi4</i>. (It may be just a coincidence that a Tamil word for the jackfruit tree is பலா <i>palā</i>.) 菠蘿 <i>bo1luo2</i> is today usually written with the grass radical 艸, just like 菠菜 <i>bo1cai4</i> (covered here <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/09/kookoo.html">earlier</a>). 菠萝蜜 <i>bo1luo2mi4</i> is now written with the character 蜜 <i>mi4</i> 'honey', so that it appears to mean 'sweet pineapple'. I don't think I know enough to understand what this <a href="http://www.tudou.com/programs/view/SyprJUYez6Y/">song</a> (video starts right away) by a TV hostess from a couple years ago is about (if anything).</p><p>Another word for 'pineapple' is 鳳梨 <i>feng4li2</i> 'phoenix pear', I assume on account of its appearance.</p><p>My wife likes pineapple chunks for lunch, but I think most of the ones I eat are in Thai entrees. Thailand has been the world's largest producer of pineapples since 1975. I do not know the etymology of <span class="t2e_std" id="T2E1229575">สับปะรด <i>sapparot</i> (<small>I can only manage transparent ones and don't have access to an appropriate resource</small>). They are <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=1rQUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA71#v=onepage&q=ananas+Saparot&f=false">mentioned</a> there by Louis XIV's ambassador <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_de_la_Loubère">Simon de la Loubère</a>, who was also a friend of Leibniz. The same work gave to Europe an Indian method of constructing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_squares#Method_for_constructing_a_magic_square_of_odd_order">odd-order magic squares</a>; the rules for Chinese chess; and one of the earliest mentions of and translations from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali">Pali</a>. (The Google Books scan did not manage to get the alphabet table fold-outs; fortunately the <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5415972c.image.f121">Gallica</a> one did.)</span></p><p><span class="t2e_std">The common Vietnamese name for pineapple is </span><i>trái thơm</i> 'fragrant fruit' (like <span class="pv-xlit">ïu̯aka´ti </span>in Tupi) given in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/João_de_Loureiro">Flora Cochinchinensis</a></i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=c0w-AAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA237&dq=ananas#v=onepage&q=ananas&f=false">p. 237</a>) as Tlái Thɔm.</p><p>If one of the current proposals for the addition of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji">emoji</a> to Unicode passes, the number of extra-linguistic <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/02/one-character-foods.html">one character foods</a> will greatly increase, and in particular will then include <a href="http://www.unicode.org/~scherer/emoji4unicode/snapshot/full.html#e-058">pineapple</a>.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-38698586368992154762009-06-15T01:00:00.007-05:002009-06-22T23:07:13.944-05:00Vegetus<p><small>I apologize that posting here has been so light this year, but other demands on my time have taken priority. I have tried to adjust this post to the recent Google Books changes; please let me know if any of the links are misbehaving.</small></p><p>The first <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/01/vegan.html">post</a> here was a footnote to the history of the word <i>vegan</i>, which was coined around 1944. Just about a century before that, the word <i>vegetarian</i> was coined. It really took hold with the formation of <a href="http://www.vegsoc.org/info/developm.html#form">The Vegetarian Society</a> in 1847, but is attested before that.</p><p>Most authoritative etymologies form <i>vegetarian</i> irregularly from <i>vegetable</i> and <i>-arian</i>, somewhat along the lines of <i>unitarian</i>. So the <a href="http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/display/50275519?keytype=ref&ijkey=efQwBf3q4UMrQ">OED</a>, <a href="http://query.nytimes.com/search/query?srchst=ref&query=vegetarian#Dictionary">AHD</a> and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OHkKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA682&dq="veget+ar+i+an"">Skeat</a>. Weekley <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2Oj6G-YgaYoC&pg=PA1584&dq=vegetarian">says</a>, “Currency of barbarously formed <i>vegetarian</i> dates from formation of Vegetarian Society at Ramsgate (1847).” Partridge has a slightly different take:</p><blockquote>From ML <i>vegetāte</i> comes the ML adj <i>vegetālis</i>, whence EF-F <i>végétal</i>, whence E <i>vegetal</i>, EF-F <i>végétal</i> has derivative <i>végétarien</i>, whence <i>végétarianisme</i>: whence E <i>vegetarian</i>, <i>vegetarianism</i>. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xA9dxrhfa5kC&q="whence+e+vegetarian"">s.v. vigor</a>)</blockquote><p>Though I am not sure on what evidence; most sources trace <i><a href="http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/vegetarien">végétarien</a></i> to English, not the other way around.</p><p>An alternative derivation is directly from Latin <i><a href="http://artfl.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.14:270.lewshort">vegetus</a> </i>'vigorous' without any intermediate <i>vegetable</i>. For example, in a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=aAcAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA82&dq=vegetarian+vegetus">letter</a> to “Ask Ms. Natural” in the 1981 <i>Vegetarian Times</i>. The <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/3165087">Souvenir of the XVth World Vegetarian Congress, India, 1957</a></i> (pp. 104-106) excerpts <a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Brandt">Carlos (Charles) Brandt</a>'s <i><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13780118">The Vital Problem</a></i> (a translation of <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=c4WZCOySt1QC&q=vegetus&pgis=1">El fundamento de la moral</a></i>), where he traces <i>vegetarianism</i> through <i>vegetus</i> and its uses in Latin to other <a href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?single=1&basename=/data/ie/pokorny&text_number=2101&root=config">cognates</a>. (In the <a href="http://www.ivu.org/congress/wvc57/souvenir/brandt.html">version on the IVU site</a>, the editor inserts a disclaimer about the starting assumption.) He credits <i>Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon</i> (6th edition, not 18th; <a href="http://www.zeno.org/Meyers-1905/K/meyers-1905-020-0003">s.v. <span class="pv-fraktur">Vegetarismus</span></a>) for being the only reference source he consulted that got the etymology and meaning right. The masthead of <i>The Vegetarian</i>, the organ of the Society from the 1880's, has a scroll beneath the title that reads, “Vegetus — Vital, Healthful, Vigorous.” I have not been able to find an image of this online, but an <a href="http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/evancoll/a/014eva000000000u08154000.html">advertisement</a> promising the inaugural issue on 19th December (1881) says similarly, “<i>Vegetus</i> — Signifying all that is Vital, Healthful, and Vigorous.”</p><p>One of the reasons for promoting this was that the name made mockery of vegetarians like that in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zP8CAAAAIAAJ&dq=vegetarian&pg=RA1-PA182">Punch</a> shortly after the Society's foundation easier. (Although there would certainly be something else in any case; a review of such satire in various places, languages and times might make for another post.)</p><p>As the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarian#Etymology">Wikipedia</a> points out, this proposal is rather suspect. (For one thing, there are earlier uses than the society, like <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cs4YAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA198&dq=vegetarian">this</a>.) In other words, it is a learned folk-etymology. But it does come with some interesting learned associations.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2009/06/vegetus.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p><i><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2810190">Thirteen Satires of Juvenal</a></i> (leaving out, as often happens, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satires_of_Juvenal#Satire_II:_Hypocrites_are_Intolerable">II</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satire_VI">VI</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satires_of_Juvenal#Satire_IX:_Flattering_your_Patron_is_Hard_Work">IX</a>, though the work isn't really intended for younger students) is, or was, a minor monument of Victorian scholarship. Its author, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Eyton_Bickersteth_Mayor">John E. B. Mayor</a>, was Professor of Latin at Cambridge University. The commentary is intended less as an aid to understanding and more as an exploration of the environment through a collection of references to related works. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Highet">Gilbert Highet</a>'s <i>Juvenal the Satirist</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=sIJiAAAAMAAJ&q=mayor+parallel+interpretation&pgis=1">says</a>, “A text with very learned notes on all satires except 2, 6, and 9; the comments consist chiefly of parallel passages, and do not go deeply into problems of text and interpretation.”</p><p>Mayor was a philologist and delighted in the details. He contributed <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=IrARAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA504&dq=Mayor">five notes</a> to the first volume of <i>Notes and Queries</i>, the Victorian group blog; and <a href="http://www.jstor.org/action/doAdvancedSearch?q0=mayor&f0=au&sd=1887&ed=1887&la=&jo=&jc.ClassicalStudies_TheClassicalReview=j100125&Search=Search">nine articles</a> to the first volume of <i>The Classical Review</i>, which was edited by his brother, Joseph. He wrote an <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=EgQKAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA271">article</a> on Latin lexicography for the <i>Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology</i>, in which he summed up his destiny, “there still remains work enough to keep the memory and the understanding employed to the end of life; there will still be new facts to collect, or forgotten facts to recover, to store up, and to classify.”</p><p>A . E. Housman succeeded Mayor as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Professor_of_Latin">Latin Professor</a>, a chair that was then renamed for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Hall_Kennedy">Kennedy</a> — an honor that Kennedy had refused while alive. (Mayor wrote a <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/690846">two</a> <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/690641">part</a> obituary of Kennedy for <i>CR</i>.) In his 1911 Inaugural Address, Housman attributes to Kennedy's <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=YGoCAAAAQAAJ">Sabrinae Corolla</a></i> (a collection of translations of English poems into Latin and Greek) his “genuine liking for Greek and Latin.” (Kennedy became <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regius_Professor_of_Greek_(Cambridge)">Regius of Greek</a> at Cambridge; in Stoppard's <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=rUlrnS8x7ucC&pg=PA3">first scene</a>, AEH tells this <i>and</i> has digs at him and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Jowett">Jowett</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regius_Professor_of_Greek_(Oxford)">Regius of Greek</a> at Oxford. We still used an <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/229259/book/2539237">edition</a> of Kennedy's public school primer in Form I Latin in the late '60s; I imagine they still uses it today.) Housman then goes on to say of Mayor:</p><blockquote><p>Most good scholars are much fonder of learning than of teaching, and to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Andrew_Johnstone_Munro">Munro</a> the duties of his office proved uncongenial and irksome. He resigned the Chair after a tenure of three years, and in 1872 it passed to the venerable man who left it vacant only last December; a scholar who in learning, if that word is taken to mean range and thoroughness of reading, had no equal in England and no superior in Europe. To dwell on the erudition of John Mayor is not merely superfluous but presumptuous; and I will now speak rather of a characteristic on which speech perhaps is not unnecessary. It is well known and sometimes lamented that for all his amplitude of knowledge he left behind him no complete work and no work having even the air of completeness. This regret I do not share; I am much more disposed to recommend for imitation the examples of one who recognized his own bent and followed it, and whose inclinations were exactly in harmony with his talents. Many a good piece of work has been spoilt by the vain passion for completeness. A scholar designs to edit a certain author, a complete edition of whom would involve the treatment of matters to whose study the editor has not been led by his own tastes and interests, and in which he therefore is not at home. The author discourses of philosophy, and the editor is no philosopher; or the author writes in complex metres, and the editor's metrical education stopped short at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Porson">Porson</a>'s canon of the final <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretic">cretic</a>. It then sometimes happens that the editor, having neither the humility to acknowledge his deficiency nor the industry or capacity to repair it, scrapes a perfunctory acquaintance with the unfamiliar subject, and treats it incompetently rather than not treat it at all; so that his work, for the sake of ostensible completeness, is disfigured with puerile errors, and he himself is detected, not merely in ignorance, but in imposture.</p><p>It is the absence of any such vanity, the abstention from all misdirected effort, which redeems and even converts into merit what might else appear defective in the works of Mayor. The establishment and the interpretation of an author's text were not matters in which he took the liveliest interest nor tasks for which he felt in himself a special aptitude: his likings pointed the same way as his abilities, to the collections of illustrative material. I said while he was alive, and I shall not unsay it because he is dead, that this labour is labour bestowed upon the circumference and not the centre of the subject. But this also is work which must be done, and which no other could have done so thoroughly. ‘If a man read <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Richardson">Richardson</a> for the story’, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pcIIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA171&dq="read+Richardson+for+the+story"+"hang yourself"">said</a> Johnson, ‘he would hang himself’; and much the same may be said not only of Mayor's <i>Juvenal</i> but of a still more celebrated book, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Lobeck">Lobeck</a>'s <i>Ajax of Sophocles</i>. When you have finished Lobeck's commentary you have imbibed a vast deal of information, but your knowledge and understanding of the Ajax has not proportionally increased. Lobeck himself in his preface admits that this is so; <span class="pv-greek">τὸ μὲν πάρεργον ἔργον ὣς ποιούμεθα</span> [, <span class="pv-greek">τὸ δ' ἔργον ὡς πάρεργον ἐκπονούμεθα.</span> 'we treat our by-work as work, and perform our work as by-work. ' <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agathon">Agathon</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=IviOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA766">frag. 11</a>]. He in his commentary is not principally the critic nor the interpreter, but the grammarian; and Mayor in his is principally the antiquarian and the lexicographer: his main concern is not with what the author wrote or meant, but with the words he used and the things he mentioned. These he carried in his mind through the whole width of his incomparable reading, and brought back from the limits of the literature all the parallels and imitations and echoes which it contained. What he has bequeathed us is less an edition than a treasure of subsidies: there he saw his true business, and to that business he stuck: and ‘it is an uncontrolled truth’, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=E33LPGyOOUAC&pg=PA399&dq="uncontrolled+truth"+"mistook+them"">says</a> Swift, ‘that no man ever made an ill figure who understood his own talents, nor a good one who mistook them’.</p></blockquote><p>(Housman, too, would edit a <i><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4926727">Juvenal</a></i>, with just an English introduction and no notes.)</p><p>Around 1880, Mayor joined the Vegetarian Society and in 1884 was elected president. At Cambridge, he was not known as a particularly effective lecturer, tending to deliver unadorned citations, as in his commentaries. But he was a proselytizer. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._R._James">M. R. James</a> recalled in his memoir <i>Eton and King's: Recollections, Mostly Trival, 1875-1925</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=TelLAAAAMAAJ&q=mayor&pgis=1">pp. 181-2</a>):</p><blockquote>There was never any translation, or any explanation of an interesting point. Of course Mayor, imagining that everybody was as conscientious as himself, thought that one would go home and look up all these references and copy out the passages in a neat hand. But! At the end of the lecture there was an oasis. I used to carry Mayor's books back to his rooms in St. John's, and he would reward me with a copy of the last number of the Vegetarian Magazine, or refresh me with the reading of a letter he had written to, or received from, one of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church">Old Catholic</a> Bishops. Innocency, charity, the purest enthusiasm for learning were seen at their best in Mayor: accompanied by a want of sense of proportion (and humour) which could hardly be exaggerated.</blockquote><p>In 1886, he greatly expanded the “Advertisement” at the head of his <i>Juvenal</i>, which had been previously unremarkable — the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=-7RLAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP7">early editions</a> just noting that he had purposely not read anyone else's English edition and containing the ultimately unfulfilled promise to do all sixteen satires, and the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=whRLAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR7">enlarged second edition</a> just providing some more details on the text. In this <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=U5qFq7_inlMC&pg=PR7">fourth edition</a>, it became a wide-ranging discourse on various matters, including in particular vegetarianism and temperance, only barely managing to return to the topic of Juvenal at the very end. There was so much new material that it was also published separately as a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=fY9LAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR7">supplement</a> to the first volume.</p><p>All of which explains why Mayor's <i>Juvenal</i>, in its final edition, contains a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=J7UYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR27&dq=vegetarian">footnote</a> on the etymology of <i>vegetarian</i>. To be specific, it refers to an address he had given, which was issued as a pamphlet, titled <i>What is Vegetarianism?</i> I have not had any luck tracking down a copy of this; it is just possible that it is included in the collection of essays, <i><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/38857284">Plain Living and High Thinking</a></i> (see <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8JlXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA131&dq="plain+living+and+high+thinking"+mayor">here</a>), but I have not been able to track down a copy of that, either. (Suggestions would be welcome.) Only one library lists it in <a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/181762949">OCLC</a>, I suspect because others catalog it differently, perhaps because it it's in a box with other Vegetarian Society ephemera. Still, it is possible to piece together much of it from quotations in the Mar. 1907 <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=FzugAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA5">Vegetarian Magazine</a></i> and a note by <a href="http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Times/1913/Obituary/William_Edward_Armytage_Axon">William E. A. Axon</a> in the Christmas 1909 <i><a href="http://www.archive.org/stream/s10notesqueries12londuoft#page/511/mode/1up">Notes & Queries</a></i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=XlkCAAAAIAAJ&dq=vegetarian+vegetus&pgis=1">snippet</a> only in GB; note that he says that as of then the word had only been traced back to 1845, just before the Society's founding).</p><blockquote><p>The name was born with the Society. [...] No lexicographer has learnt our secret, ‘<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=YBIEAAAAQAAJ">fruit and <i>farinacea</i></a>’. The vulgar error that we devour a wheelbarrow load of cabbages at a meal is fostered by definitions like these:</p><p>[Here everyone omits Mayor's inventory of “wrong” definitions from various lexica, which is too bad, since that is just the sort of thing this blog is all about.]</p><p>Would you be surprised to learn that as Vegetarians, looking at the word etymologically, not historically or in the light of our official definition, we are neither required to eat <i>all</i> vegetable products, nor vegetable products <i>only</i>, nor even vegetable products at all? Far from committing us to abstain from milk and eggs, the name derives its connexion with diet exclusively from the definition given to it by our Society.</p><p>When <i>librarian</i> means an ‘eater of books,’ <i>antiquarian</i> ‘an eater of antiques,’ even then <i>vegetarian</i> will not, cannot, mean ‘an eater of vegetables.’ Your learned townsman, my old friend Mr. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_John_Roby">Roby</a>, has <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=a5cXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA361">cited</a> many nouns substantive and adjective ending in <i>arius</i> = Engl. <i>arian</i>. All of these are derived from nouns substantive or adjective, none from verbs. Prof. Skeat was misled by a borrowed definition. <i>Antiquus</i>, ‘ancient’; <i>antiqua</i>, ‘antiques’; <i>antiquarius</i>, ‘one who studies, deals in, has to do with, antiques an antiquary or antiquarian.’ So <i>vegetarius</i>, ‘one who studies, has to do with, <i>vegeta</i>.’ What <i>vegetus</i> means you shall hear from impartial lips :—</p><p><i>Vegetabilis</i> is not used in good Latin at all. Cicero's word for plants is <i>gignentia</i>.</p><p>‘Vegetus, <i>whole, sound, strong, quick, fresh, lively, lusty, gallant, trim, brave</i>; vegeto, <i>to refresh, recreate, or make lively, lusty, quick and strong, to make sound</i>.’ Thomas Holyoke, ‘Latin Dictionary,’ London, 1677.</p><p>Ainsworth adds to the senses of ‘Vegetus,’ <i>agile, alert, brisk, crank, pert, nourishing, vigorous, fine, seasonable</i>; and renders the primitive ‘vegeo’ <i>to be lusty and strong, or sound and whole; to make brisk or mettlesome; to refresh</i>.</p><p>The word <i>vegetarius</i> belongs to an illustrious family. <i>Vegetable</i>, which has been called its mother, is really its niece. Vegetation, vigil, vigilant, vigour, invigorate, wake, watch, wax, augment; the Gr. <span class="pv-greek">ὑγιὴς</span> (sound) ; Hygieia, the goddess of health; <i>hygiene</i>, the science of health; all these are more or less distant relatives.</p><p>The Vegetarian, then, is one who aims at wholeness, soundness, strength, quickness, vigour, growth, wakefulness, health. These must be won by a return to nature, and the natural food for man is a diet of fruit and <i>farinacea</i>, with which some combine such animal products as may be enjoyed without destroying sentient life.</p></blockquote><p>In his clarification, and in specifically addressing his footnote to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Thompson">Sir Henry Thompson</a>'s <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=DFy1cuYduTwC&pg=PA11">work</a> on diet, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Robert_Eduard_von_Hartmann">Eduard von Hartmann</a>'s <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=J1buOTegQfAC&pg=PA15">essay</a> “Was sollen wir essen?” 'What should we eat?', Mayor is also addressing an issue which would be framed in modern terms as the difference between vegetarians and vegans. His opponents claim that vegetarians, transparently eaters only of foods with vegetable origins, are deceptive when they also eat animal protein like eggs or milk. So, there is position to be won by showing that <i>vegetarian</i> actually refers to a healthy diet in which those are permitted. (This being before it was clear how one might manage to get complete protein without them.) This same idea is presented by <a href="http://www.resources.homecall.co.uk/home/page30.html">Josiah Oldfield</a> in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4t0aAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA248&dq=vegetarian+vegeto">reply</a> to two <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=p98AAAAAYAAJ&dq="why vegetarian"&pg=PA556">articles</a> by Thompson and he gives a similar derivation from <i><a href="http://artfl.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.14:269.lewshort">vegeto</a></i> 'invigorate'. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustace_Miles">Eustace Miles</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hhoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA192&dq=vegetarian+vegetus">rejects</a> the name, since animal protein is needed for his athlete's vegetarian diet. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Stephens_Salt">Henry Salt</a> hedges his bets a little:</p><blockquote>Mind, I am not saying that the originators of the term “vegetarian” had this meaning in view, but merely that the etymological sense of the word does not favour your contention any more than the historical. (<i>The Logic of Vegetarianism</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OnoPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5&dq=vegetarian+vegetus">p. 5</a>)</blockquote><p>(In other words, he goes one step beyond the argument that etymology exposes the true meaning of a word, because it does so even when the coiners did not know or intend it.)</p><p>In August, 1907, the Third Universal Congress of Esperantists was held in Cambridge. Mayor (then 83) took advantage of the opportunity to learn enough of the language to deliver a speech in Esperanto on the last morning (apparently he addressed them at other times in English that had to be translated). <i>The Times</i> (Mon., Aug. 19, 1907) reported:</p><blockquote><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Professor J. E. B. Mayor</span>, professor of Latin at Cambridge, addressed the congress amid a scene of the greatest enthusiasm. He said that in their meetings miracle followed miracle, and he had ceased to be astonished at the mutual comprehensibility of all nations. It had come to be plainly seen that their Esperanto Congresses had resulted in the discovery of a new international nation, of which Dr. Zamenhof was the Christopher Columbus. They had witnessed a new Pentecostal festival, as shown by the different nationalities there represented. Professor Mayor proceeded to say he considered it a great mistake for people to suppose that the learning of Esperanto would interfere with the study of other languages. He was convinced that if a child of five learnt Esperanto he would afterwards learn with ease French, Latin, German, &c. Esperanto was, in fact, the <i>lernigilo</i> for all other languages.</blockquote><p>See also <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WRASAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA3-PA182&dq="professor+mayor"">here</a> and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=gHIAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA240&dq="professor+mayor"">here</a>. I wonder whether a copy of this speech survives someplace.</p><p>For more information on Mayor, see the <a href="http://www.archive.org/stream/dictionaryofnati02stepuoft#page/594/mode/2up">DNB</a>, the <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/694004">obituary</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Edwin_Sandys">J. E. Sandys</a> in <i>The Classical Review</i>, the “Memoir” in <i><a href="http://www.archive.org/details/twelvecambridges00mayorich">Twelve Cambridge Sermons</a></i>, and <a href="http://www.classics.cam.ac.uk/faculty/staff-bios/academic-research-staff/john_henderson/">John Henderson</a>'s <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/3205101">Juvenal's Mayor: the Professor who Lived on 2<sup>d</sup> a Day</a></i>. (I do not agree with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Eyton_Bickersteth_Mayor">Wikipedia</a> that this last portrait is "unsympathetic," though it is indeed "idiosyncratic." It aims to strike some balance between Mayor as a useless old kook and ignoring his quirks. See also the <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/300784">review</a> of it by one of Henderson's students, <a href="http://www.cnrs.ubc.ca/index.php?id=10833">Susanna Morton Braund</a>, who is herself a vegetarian and an <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521356671">editor</a> of Juvenal.) Henderson has also edited a <a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/180982801">version</a> of Mayor's <i>Juvenal</i>, adding commentary on the commentary. Someone should track down a copy of the <i><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/174940723">Catalogue of the Library of J. E. B. Mayor, Deceased, Comprising Upwards of 18,000 Volumes of Books</a></i> and get it started in <a href="http://www.librarything.com/groups/iseedeadpeoplesbooks">LibraryThing's Legacy Libraries</a> project.</p><p>Mayor's predecessor as president of the Vegetarian Society was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_William_Newman" name="newman">Francis W. Newman</a>, who is best remembered today for holding less orthodox religious views than his brother, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Henry_Newman">John Henry, Cardinal Newman</a>. (There was a third brother, Charles Robert, who was an <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=svn6vtdrUm8C">atheist</a> and a <a href="http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9A00E3DA1138E033A25755C2A9629C94659FD7CF">hermit</a>. The <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar_of_Assent">Grammar of Assent</a></i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=x4UTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA238&dq="three+Protestants"">sums up</a> the situation, “Thus, of three Protestants, one becomes a Catholic, a second a Unitarian, and a third an unbeliever.”) Francis was Professor of — Latin! — at University College, London. (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Kingsley">Charles Kingsley</a>, Cardinal Newman's adversary in the <a href="http://www2.bc.edu/~rappleb/kingsley/KNewmanControversy.html">debate</a> on Catholicism and Truth which sparked, and is given in an appendix to some <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/3869/book/37356108">editions</a> of, Newman's <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apologia_Pro_Vita_Sua">Apologia</a></i>, had the same tutor at Cambridge as Mayor, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VslHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=Bateson+Mayor|Kingsley">Dr. Bateson</a>.) Professor Newman was a polymath, writing on <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pUxtAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover">mathematics</a> as well as <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=qIQFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA470">religion</a>, philology and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=CuIRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA156">vegetarianism</a>. (See the bibliography <a href="http://www.fwnewman.org/Research/Bibliography.pdf">here</a>.)</p><p>Newman translated some English works into Latin, as part of a scheme for facilitating teaching the language:</p><ul><li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=FUVIAAAAIAAJ"><i>Hiawatha</i></a>:<blockquote>Juxta ripas Aequoris Maximi,<br>Lacûs latissime relucentis,<br>Nocomidis stabat tugurium,<br>Nocomidis e Lunâ genitae.<br>Nigra surgit <i>pone</i> silva,<br>Atrâ contristata pino<br>Atque abiete nucamentis squameâ.<br>Clara jactatur <i>in froute</i> unda<br>Praeter ripam Lacûs Maximi,<br>Unda aprica, late relucens. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?pg=PA22&id=FUVIAAAAIAAJ">p. 22</a>)</blockquote></li><li>Shorter <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UAKAoomooNAC">Translations of English Poetry into Latin Verse</a></i>, such as [15] “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=dao-AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA40">Erin's Days of Old</a>”:<blockquote><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Tempus</span> Ierne revocet veterum,<br>Prava priusquam sua progenies<br>Infidè proderet ipsam:<br>Quum colli déçus aurea torqnis,<br>Derepta superbo invasori,<br>Malachaeum laudibus auxit;<br>Regesque sui, viridi elato<br>Panno, miniâ fronde Quirites<br>Ducebant per fera bella;<br>Necdum regia nostra maragdus<br>Maris Hesperii gemma refulsit<br>Tempora circum peregriui. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UAKAoomooNAC&pg=PA45">p. 45</a>)</blockquote>Note how the philologist cannot help inserting a footnote proposing that <i>Curaidhe</i> 'knights' and <i>Quirites</i> must be cognate, an idea that he also picks up in <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=-qMYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=quiris+curaidh">Regal Rome</a></i> and which gets blasted by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_William_Donaldson">Donaldson</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hK0aAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA64&dq=newman+quiris+curaidh">here</a>. <i><a href="http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/MB2/mb12.html#curaidh">Curaidh</a></i> seems to be from a root <a href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?single=1&basename=/data/ie/pokorny&text_number=+951&root=config"><span class="pv-xlit">*k̂ū-ro-s</span></a> 'strong' and cognate with <a href="http://artfl.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.36:6:23.lsj">κύριος</a> and <a href="http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw1086-zUdravarga.jpg">शूर</a>.<br> </li><li>or [61] “Peace After War”:<blockquote><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Nobis</span> hiems morosa tandem splendida<br>Evasit aestas sole sub Ebŏrāceo;<br>Nubesque cunctae, quae domum obscuraverant,<br>Evanuere, penitus immersae mari. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UAKAoomooNAC&pg=PA147">p. 147</a>)</blockquote></li><li><i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=BAcGAAAAQAAJ">Robinson Crusoe</a></i> (<i>Rebilius Cruso</i>; as much a retelling in Latin as a strict translation, and so actually missing most famous passages):<blockquote>209. Tamen neutiquam satiata est mea cupiditas. Ad cocos nuces demetendas falculam illam mecum apportavi; scalas novas ipsis in hortis relinquebam. Dum autem infra incedo, <i>ananassas</i> video multas, (<i>mala pïnea</i> vulgo nos vocamus): nunquam ego anteà has animadverti. Jam intelligo et plurimas esse et maximas, paene ex arenis cum cactis nascentes. Unam illicò vindemiavi, nec abstinui quin grande frustum comederim. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=BAcGAAAAQAAJ&dq=209&pg=RA1-PA55">p. 55</a>)</blockquote></li></ul><p>He prepared a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=XpUCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR1">text</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iguvine_Tables">Iguvine Tables</a> with interlinear latin translation.</p><p>Of Newman's <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KvQNAAAAYAAJ">translation</a> of the <i>Iliad</i>, Matthew Arnold <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=z-MFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA10&dq=Newman "yet failed more conspicuously than any of them"">wrote</a>, “while for want of appreciating the fourth, [Homer's] nobleness, Mr. Newman, who has clearly seen some of the faults of his predecessors, has yet failed more conspicuously than any of them.” Newman replied with <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Jewf-vB69PkC&printsec=frontcover"><i>Homeric Translation in Theory and Practice</i></a> and Arnold <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=-lgJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1">rejoined</a>.</p><p>Newman wrote a <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_9EOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3">Handbook</a></i> and <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eUQYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR3">Dictionary of Modern Arabic</a></i>, both avoiding the Arabic alphabet. He produced a number of monographs on Berber languages (I am not qualified to say how these compare to the ones listed recently at <a href="http://lughat.blogspot.com/2009/05/more-downloadable-berber-books-online.html">Jabal al-Lughat</a>):</p><ul><li>“Outline of the Kabail Grammar.” <i>West England Journal of Scientific Literature</i>, 1836. (Listed in Berber bibliographies <a href="http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/jaldere1/bbiblio2_june01.htm">here</a> and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0E8qp_k515oC&pg=PA292&dq=Newman">here</a>.)</li><li>“<a href="http://www.fwnewman.org/Catalogue/fwn/WEJSL_1-1836.html">Essay towards a Grammar of the Berber Language</a>,” <i>West of England Journal </i>1.5 (January 1836): 161-84.</li><li>“<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=DDFZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA135">On the Berber Language of Mount Atlas, generally supposed to be that of the ancient Mauritanians</a>.”</li><li>“<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=qXcOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA617">Of the Structure of the Berber Language</a>.”</li><li>“A Grammar of the Berber Language.”<br>This ought to be online, but the necessary volume (6) of <i>Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes</i> didn't get <a href="http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A(Zeitschrift%20f%C3%BCr%20die%20Kunde%20des%20Morgenlandes)%20AND%20contributor%3A(Toronto)">scanned</a> for some reason.</li><li>“<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UpQ2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA461">Berber Languages</a>.” (uncredited).</li><li>“<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=qK4IAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA215">The Narrative of Sidi Ibrahim ibn Muhammad el Messai el Susi</a>.”</li><li>“<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HpsSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA588">Wörterbuch des Dialektes der Auelimmiden</a>.”</li><li>“<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=fTJqzOJwBxMC&pg=PA417">Notes on the Libyan Languages</a>.”</li><li><i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WqYTAAAAQAAJ">Libyan Vocabulary</a></i>.</li><li><i>Kabail Vocabulary Supplemented by the Aid of a New Source</i>. (<a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7558775">OCLC</a>).</li></ul><p>Newman's solution to the naming problem was <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UgQFAAAAQAAJ&dq="V+E+M"&pg=PA24">V E M</a> ('vegetables, eggs, milk'), suggested to him by his friend Thomas Jarrett, Professor of Arabic at Cambridge and then <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regius_professor_of_Hebrew">Regius of Hebrew</a>. Of Jarrett, Edward James Rapson, Professor of Sanskrit at Cambridge, writing in the DNB, says:</p><blockquote>As a linguist, Jarrett was chiefly remarkable for the extent and variety of his knowledge. He knew at least twenty languages, and taught Hebrew, Arabic, Sanskrit, Persian, Gothic, and indeed almost any language for which he could find a student. He spent much time in the transliteration of oriental languages into the Roman character, according to a system devised by himself; and also in promulgating a system of printing English with diacritical marks to show the sound of each vowel without changing the spelling of the word. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eRhbAAAAIAAJ&dq="jarrett thomas"&pg=PA690">Vol. 10, p. 690</a>)</blockquote><p>Jarrett's <i>New Way of Marking the Sounds of English Words Without Change of Spelling</i> is <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=y8URAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1">online</a>.</p><p>Newman <a href="http://via.lib.harvard.edu/via/deliver/deepcontent?recordId=HUAM17129">sported</a> the timeless look of a center part and long scraggly gray beard. For more information on him, see the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8iU8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1093&dq="Newman+Francis+William"">DNB</a>, the memoirs <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/memoirlettersoff00sievuoft">here</a>, and the website of the <a href="http://www.fwnewman.org/">Francis Newman Society</a>.</p><p>Mayor's successor as president was, I believe, <a href="http://www.ivu.org/members/council/ernest-bell.html">Ernest Bell</a>, one of the sons of the publishers <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bell_&_Sons">George Bell & Sons</a>, and, as far as I know, not otherwise relevant to this post.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-25738736016167395392008-12-01T02:40:00.004-05:002009-01-11T15:27:58.159-05:00Magnets<p>I'm not much of one for annual events, such as national or religious holidays. I might manage a teetotaler's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomsday">Bloomsday</a> some years. There was a <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/10/hangul-day_09.html">Hangul Day</a> post last year, but that is more a commemoration than a celebration.</p><p>But the gift-giving season is when retailers stock up, particularly on items aimed at children. So that is when I am the lookout for some of the things we collect.</p><p>To keep posts here from becoming too formulaic, this will be another short and superficial picture post, covering one such collection. Plastic Alphabet Magnets.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2008/12/magnets.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>Upon reflection, there seems to be an attraction to magnets in general, whether it is a specimen of magnetite, classic bar and ring magnets, stronger <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium_magnet">neodymium magnets</a>, or those construction toys with magnetic rods and steel balls.</p><p>For rare books, the library copy or a PDF is often enough. But we do happen to have a copy of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a>'s <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/754714/">Magnes, sive de arte magnetica</a></i>. (The <a href="http://www.hab.de/bibliothek/wdb/">library</a> with an online copy listed in the texts in that Wikipedia article actually has more of his works than just those listed.) As far as I know, this is the only book we own to ever be featured on the wonderful <a href="http://bibliodyssey.blogspot.com/2007/12/kirchers-magnetism.html">BibliOdyssey</a> site.</p><p>Here is a basic uppercase Roman set:</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyAWRevTdfXQG_n3D9gk68-jR6tUQE8SeyKltCooGedvPt49MIo6FtGuXCq5zN7mz7RlX-PqzIjtSwPcceuyr27iyv4NItfRZEnVYxez4oh87F3SdnAflaLP4p1Qyg473KJk6wK8L0epw/s1600-h/Roman.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 336px; height: 361px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyAWRevTdfXQG_n3D9gk68-jR6tUQE8SeyKltCooGedvPt49MIo6FtGuXCq5zN7mz7RlX-PqzIjtSwPcceuyr27iyv4NItfRZEnVYxez4oh87F3SdnAflaLP4p1Qyg473KJk6wK8L0epw/s400/Roman.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5289810941531345554" /></a></div><p>I am certain that such sets exist with accents and umlauts, but I haven't found them around here. (Despite what people may claim, I haven't even seen one with an Ñ.)</p><p>The Cyrillic set I found is made of foam rubber, not plastic, so the photo isn't as shiny:</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfk6TGyqzXzoydszDGS3xd952O4X_DGQrR77Hub34phwBDKPIky5JHidBYjBYWnrsoYsG4aRA3KglduVPFG_gHTN_0XcywfdhVoJtH6i82nvSVXPX8zXHf7qkX02nugxyEBn87MrnpXwA/s1600-h/Cyrillic.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 318px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfk6TGyqzXzoydszDGS3xd952O4X_DGQrR77Hub34phwBDKPIky5JHidBYjBYWnrsoYsG4aRA3KglduVPFG_gHTN_0XcywfdhVoJtH6i82nvSVXPX8zXHf7qkX02nugxyEBn87MrnpXwA/s400/Cyrillic.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5289810946167876322" /></a></div><p>(I probably cheated making a Й from a И and one of the minus signs.)</p><p>The Greek set has complete Greek and Roman alphabets, in both upper- and lower-case. Even the uppercase that are roughly the same shape are distinguished by choosing a somewhat different font for the two:</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0fviBA1BPOdPUZ8fJgiKuEkeo6xaG69y41kBPPCu638GIr6KPXYMEyhFXZNyhiqp9VFbo-yKZKM6G6MJALk8lPW9Wsa4UlGrgjyDDNT7DpyuvwOQr1KZotTSa62n1iyd_3HZboYUugNg/s1600-h/Greek.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 303px; height: 400px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0fviBA1BPOdPUZ8fJgiKuEkeo6xaG69y41kBPPCu638GIr6KPXYMEyhFXZNyhiqp9VFbo-yKZKM6G6MJALk8lPW9Wsa4UlGrgjyDDNT7DpyuvwOQr1KZotTSa62n1iyd_3HZboYUugNg/s400/Greek.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5289810955167354802" /></a></div><p>The Devanagari only has the independent form of the vowels:</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmUh0OsIzZkV_ygmc7gqFWBgw7g6ufSmChRfv7-DXmPzckCqB5c1FPK-VG97jaoyrhCdttXS-yoJd0g-MXYkYc58MN3Yk-ceDE6AxAvUpeCm_RY1wPw6yTaH0DmwI3axLwRCfkiinvQuo/s1600-h/Devanagari.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 306px; height: 400px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmUh0OsIzZkV_ygmc7gqFWBgw7g6ufSmChRfv7-DXmPzckCqB5c1FPK-VG97jaoyrhCdttXS-yoJd0g-MXYkYc58MN3Yk-ceDE6AxAvUpeCm_RY1wPw6yTaH0DmwI3axLwRCfkiinvQuo/s400/Devanagari.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5289810952857398914" /></a></div><p>It is actually designed here in Boston (see this <a href="http://www.lokvani.com/lokvani/article.php?article_id=4101">article</a>), suggesting that much of the market is expat parents and especially grandparents.</p><p>I imagine the biggest seller through the grandparent channel would be the Hebrew:</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDrMl_g80U8snpNnDCYvxb0c3kJgsZ7m374pk2S51pGYPiA2n0kMviI1n_zyj2uOlMOzg90WJtt6-AQBAYbc8KL57EXDkij40V5AXARzZ93bUZGlLTGzeKqn5-lNi9W2f-WqJ3Y_o0Shc/s1600-h/Hebrew.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 259px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDrMl_g80U8snpNnDCYvxb0c3kJgsZ7m374pk2S51pGYPiA2n0kMviI1n_zyj2uOlMOzg90WJtt6-AQBAYbc8KL57EXDkij40V5AXARzZ93bUZGlLTGzeKqn5-lNi9W2f-WqJ3Y_o0Shc/s400/Hebrew.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5289810961304477682" /></a></div><p>No vowel points, but extra <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mater_lectionis#Usage_in_Hebrew">matres lectionis</a>.</p><p>The Hangul consists of four complete sets of consonants and reorientable vowels, in four different colors:</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNnm6YVlj43RCTp9jJvP6UOJ9wklLA6_a2ggbN4wobNFqCytp4ZXvmO9nKxl1gAHKqjWU9eRKxF7ViVNXSVbP_B8P7TKZ0R-kXkdVcwp5bYdu-ndDAnkMjGBr0w-CSP6LPgedlBa4jMeo/s1600-h/Hangul.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 290px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNnm6YVlj43RCTp9jJvP6UOJ9wklLA6_a2ggbN4wobNFqCytp4ZXvmO9nKxl1gAHKqjWU9eRKxF7ViVNXSVbP_B8P7TKZ0R-kXkdVcwp5bYdu-ndDAnkMjGBr0w-CSP6LPgedlBa4jMeo/s400/Hangul.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5289811119489335634" /></a></div><p>(With four ㅏㅓㅗㅜ pieces, but only three ㅑㅕㅛㅠ pieces.) The <a href="http://www.magnetopia.co.kr/FrontStore/iGoodsView.phtml?iCategoryId=&iGoodsId=0005_00010">company</a> that makes these has arithmetic and Roman, too, not surprisingly. (Note how the product name 한글 자석놀이 'Hangul magnet fun' is written out on the magnetic memo-board on that page.)</p><p>For Arabic, a rather different approach is called for:</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiT9w2EV8bLyU01qAMUQNxUpBW0FnSYtrEZxrElsx3S3ZN-YiMdgK3L77v7MFGYJf3UMabjePgK8bmNXc9mdx1DwBI3cM9TVoqniZdm5sLL2hwB2aLO46UkKpvgx5Thw_9DKREr9CgBFpQ/s1600-h/Arabic.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 279px; height: 400px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiT9w2EV8bLyU01qAMUQNxUpBW0FnSYtrEZxrElsx3S3ZN-YiMdgK3L77v7MFGYJf3UMabjePgK8bmNXc9mdx1DwBI3cM9TVoqniZdm5sLL2hwB2aLO46UkKpvgx5Thw_9DKREr9CgBFpQ/s400/Arabic.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5289811128105295522" /></a></div><p>The pieces are color-coded for letters with similar behaviors. When connected, the pieces attach; when not, a tail attaches instead. The kāf rotates around to its final form. The lām + ʼalif mandatory ligature is made by flipping the second letter from behind. Fortunately, I don't need to describe it all, because the product's <a href="http://www.abjad.com/">site</a> goes into details.</p><p>I assume more of these exist, but I have not come across them yet. I should make this post even more relevant to the blog by including some photos of vegetable fridge magnets. But the issue is that our fridge has too much nickel in its stainless and isn't magnetic (I took the <a href="http://www.think-of-it.com/deluxe.html">Frigits</a> and <a href="http://buphy.bu.edu/~duffy/waves/3A95_50.html">Pendumonium</a> into the office), so I have to locate them first and it seems best not to hold up a year-end post into late January. I will update when they show up.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-85445449911645843872008-11-01T20:18:00.006-05:002009-01-12T22:22:04.008-05:00Ginger<p>Boston still has a number of used book stores, surviving, though perhaps not thriving, despite the internet, in which browsing almost always uncovers something worthwhile. And, of course, those same online dealers, while offering less serendipity, can be used to track down a particular work referenced elsewhere.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hill_Burton">John Hill Burton</a>, the Scottish historian, wrote in <i>The Book-Hunter</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3mExAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA101">p. 101</a>):</p><blockquote>The possession, or, in some other shape, the access to a far larger collection of books than can be read through in a lifetime, is in fact an absolute condition of intellectual culture and expansion.</blockquote><p>And a couple pages on gives an image of classic works of compilation (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3mExAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103">p. 103</a>):</p><blockquote>There are those terrible folios of the scholastic divines, the civilians, and the canonists, their majestic stream of central print overflowing into rivulets of marginal notes sedgy with citations.</blockquote><p>Nowadays, these are footnotes and end notes, or in a less formal medium like this, hyperlinks.</p><p>A used book find ideally suited to the purpose of this blog is <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/5334849"><i>Ginger: A Loan-Word Study</i></a> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=QyYeAAAAIAAJ">snippet</a> view), by Alan S. C. Ross.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2008/11/ginger.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_S_C_Ross">Alan Strode Campbell Ross</a> also wrote a <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/790819">book</a> on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitcairnese_language">Pitcairnese</a>, the creole descending from the Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian wives. He is best remembered for his study of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U_and_non-U_English">U and non-U</a> English: an essay with that title is included among the collection by Nancy Mitford in <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/209212">Noblesse Oblige: An Enquiry into the Identifiable Characteristics of the English Aristocracy</a></i>. It is a condensed and simplified version (and not a reprint as Wikipedia implies) of the paper “Linguistic class-indicators in present-day English,” which appeared in 1954 in <i>Neuphilologische Mitteilungen</i> and is among those reprinted for the 120th anniversary issue last year, which are available online <a href="http://www.helsinki.fi/jarj/ufy/publications.htm">here</a>. More recently, he has caused a lexicographic mystery by having referred to taboo words as <i>mumfordish</i> in a 1934 review of the OED that also appeared in that journal: the question being, who is Mumford? (See discussion at <a href="http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=719">Language Log</a> and <a href="http://www.languagehat.com/archives/003277.php">Language Hat</a>.)</p><p>The framework of Ross's <i>Ginger</i> book begins with a passage from the 1414 <i><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17868496">Records</a></i> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worshipful_Company_of_Grocers">Grocers' Company</a>:</p><blockquote><p>Auxi tout le Gynger quest faux colore Columbyn et auxibien Maykyn il fuist colore en le color de Belendyn.</p><p>Also all the ginger which is falsely coloured <i>columbyn</i>, and <i>maykyn</i> as well, was coloured the colour of <i>belendyn</i>.</p></blockquote><p>Then, following <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=sR8NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA619&vq=pegolotti+gingembre">Heyd</a>, a passage from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratica_della_mercatura">Pegolotti</a> (the text of which is apparently not online):</p><blockquote><p>Giengiovo si è di più maniere, cioè <i>belledi</i> e <i>colombino</i> et <i>micchino</i>, …</p><p>Ginger is of several sorts, viz. <i>belledi</i> and <i>colombino</i> and <i>micchino</i>.</p></blockquote><p>Pegolotti explains that <i>colombino</i> comes from Colombo (Quilon / <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollam">Kollam</a> കൊല്ലം, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xd0UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA309&vq=kollam">perhaps</a> 'high ground') and <i>micchino</i> from Mecca. (<i><a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k831118/f232.notice">The Ménagier de Paris</a></i> has <i>gingembre de mesche et gingembre coulombin</i>, though it offers the exact opposite conclusion as Pegolotti for which is easier to cut. Note also that <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Argb7PmV3fkC&pg=PA188&vq=ginger">Power</a>'s translation 'string ginger' is incorrect.)</p><p>And a couplet from John Russell's <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=sTMJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA10">Boke of Nurture</a></i>:</p><blockquote>For good gyng<i>er</i> colombyne / is best to drynke and ete;<br>Gyng<i>er</i> valadyne & maydelyn̄ ar not so holsom in mete.</blockquote><p>Which is explained by the <a href="http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50094711?">OED</a>, “<small><b><i>ginger colombyne</i></b> (quot. <i>c</i>1460), ginger from Quilon (L. <i>Columbum</i>); <b><i>g. valadyne</i></b> and <b><i>g. maydelyn</i></b>, mentioned in the same quot., have not been identified.</small>”</p><p>So, with two of the kinds identified, the etymological questions that remain are <i>ginger</i> itself and <i>beledi</i>.</p><p>An old Language Hat <a href="http://www.languagehat.com/archives/000680.php">post</a> covered the outline of the <i>ginger</i> etymology, but none of the comments brought up Ross's book (also, one of the links given has moved to <a href="http://www.staff.hum.ku.dk/mjd/etcib/ginger.html">here</a>). Another good place to start for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginger">ginger</a> is the entry in <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:15.hobson">Hobson-Jobson</a> (which Ross cites in a footnote).</p><p>Ginger originates in tropical Asia; the exact location is not known for certain, as it is generally not found wild. (<a href="http://www.botanicus.org/page/209947">Schumann</a> — see also <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/daspflanzenreich20engluoft">here</a>, pg. 172 — and <a href="http://www.botanicus.org/page/500169">Lauterbach</a> report two possible finds in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismarck_Archipelago">Bismarck Archipelago</a>: by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Warburg_(botanist)">Warburg</a> at Mioko, in what are now the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_York_Islands">Duke of York Islands</a> — see <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2SgXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA276&vq=zingiber+mioko">here</a>; and by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Dahl">Dahl</a> at Ralum, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_New_Britain">East New Britain</a>. I suspect more modern experts place the origin further north.) It was cultivated throughout Asia early on.</p><p>Ginger was known to the Greeks and Romans. For instance, Dioscorides:</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ζιγγίβερι ἴδιον ἐστι φυτόν, γεννώμενον ἐν τῇ Τρωγλοδυτικῇ 〈καὶ〉 Ἀραβίᾳ πλεῖστον, οὗ χρῶνται τῇ χλόῃ εἰς πολλά, καθάπερ ἡμεῖς τῷ πηγάνῳ, ἕψοντες εἰς προποτισμοὺς καὶ εἰς ἑψήματα μίσγονστες. ἔστι δὲ ῥιζία μικρά, ὥσπερ κυπέρου, ὑπόλευκα , πεπερίζοντα τῇ γεύσει εὐώδη· ἐκλέγου δὲ τὰ ἀτερηδόνιστα.</span> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=lRsIAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA161&vq=160+%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B2%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9">II. 160</a>)</p><p>Ginger is a peculiar plant, growing for the most part in Trogodytica and Arabia; the green part of it is used for many purposes, just as we use rue, boiling in drinks and mixing into boiled dishes. It is small rootlets, like the root of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyperus_rotundus">galingale</a>, whitish, peppery tasting, and fragrant. Choose the ones that are not worm-eaten.</p></blockquote><p>Note that Wellmann supplies a missing conjunction, “Troglodytica and Arabia,” but <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=bUpa6XuMCpwC&pg=PA160&vq=160+ginger">Beck</a> translates the text as given, “Troglodytic Arabia.” On ancient confusion between Trogodytae / <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troglodytae">Troglodytae</a> and troglodytes, see an old Language Hat <a href="http://www.languagehat.com/archives/003077.php">discussion</a> and the <a href="http://www.jstor.org/pss/1794358">paper</a> in JSTOR to which it links.</p><p>And Pliny, in a passage quoted more extensively in the long pepper <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2008/02/balinese-long-pepper.html">post</a>:</p><blockquote><p><b>28.</b> Non est hujus arboris radix, ut aliqui existimavere, quod vocant zingiberi, alii vero zimpiberi, quanquam sapore simili. Id enim in Arabia atque Trogodytica in villis nascitur, parvæ herbæ, radice candida. …</p><p><b>29.</b> … Utrumque silvestre gentibus suis est et tamen pondere emitur ut aurum vel argentum. … (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_ohMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA285&vq=zingiberi">Book XII, Chap. 14 / 7</a>)</p><p>28. The root of this tree is not, as many persons have imagined, the same as the substance known as zimpiberi, or, as some call it, zingiberi, or ginger, although it is very like it in taste. For ginger, in fact, grows in Arabia and in Troglodytica, in various cultivated spots, being a small plant with a white root. …</p><p>29. … Both pepper and ginger grow wild in their respective countries, and yet here we buy them by weight--just as if they were so much gold or silver. … (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=A0EMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA112&vq=ginger">Bostock & Riley</a>)</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville">Isidore of Seville</a> knew that it also came from further east:</p><blockquote><p>Traditur etiam alia species cyperi, quae in India nascitur et appellatur lingua eorum zinziber. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=GWF0AAAAIAAJ&pg=PT357&vq=zinziber">XVII.ix.8</a>)</p><p>There is also said to be another kind of galingale, which grows in India and is called in their language <i>ginger</i>.</p></blockquote><p>Marco Polo evidently found ginger at Kollam:</p><blockquote><p>Good ginger grows here, and it is known by the same name of <i>Coilumin</i> after the country. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vsKY2uImEiEC&pg=PA375&vq=ginger">Yule</a>)</p></blockquote><p>(See also Yule's <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vsKY2uImEiEC&pg=PA381&vq=ginger">note</a> concerning the main theme of this discussion, the three varieties of ginger. I am not certain which manuscript this sentence comes from, since Yule edited together a number of them. It is not any of the ones I can find online, such as <a href="http://www.liberliber.it/biblioteca/r/ramusio/">Ramusio</a>, <i><a href="http://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Milione/176">Il Milione</a></i>, or the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=uLQBAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA463&vq=coilum">Geographic Text</a>.) And Malabar:</p><blockquote><p>In questa regione v'è grandissima copia di pevere, zenzero e cubebe e noci d'India. (Ramusio, Lib. 3, Cap. 28; cf. <i>Il Milione</i>, <a href="http://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Milione/179">Cap. 179</a>)</p><p>There is in this kingdom a great quantity of pepper, and ginger, [and cinnamon, and turbit,] and of nuts of India. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vsKY2uImEiEC&pg=PA389&vq=ginger">Yule</a>)</p></blockquote><p>and in China:</p><blockquote><p>E quivi nasce zenzero in gran quantità, il qual si porta per tutta la provincia del Cataio, con grande utilità de' mercanti; … (Lib. 2, Cap. 35)</p><p>I may tell you that in this province [Acbalec Manzi], there grows such a great quantity of ginger, that it is carried all over the region of Cathay, and it affords a maintenance to all the people of the province, who get great gain thereby. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vsKY2uImEiEC&pg=PA33&vq=ginger">Yule</a>)</p></blockquote><p>(On the identification of Acbalec Manzi, see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Pelliot">Paul Pelliot</a>'s <i>Notes on Marco Polo</i>, a portion of which is scanned <a href="http://www.polonews.info/documento.php?id=311">here</a>: he concludes that it must be 漢中 (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanzhong">Hanzhong</a>), as Yule suspected.)</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolás_Monardes">Monardes</a> says that <a href="http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_de_Mendoza">Francisco de Mendoza</a> brought ginger to the new world:</p><blockquote><p>Don Franciſco de Mendoça hijo del Virey don Antonio de Mendoça, ſembro en Nueua Eſpaña Clauo, Pimenta, Gengibre, y otras Eſpecias, delas que traen dela India Oriental: per dioſe aquel negocio por ſu muerte, ſolo quedo el Gengibre, porque naſcio muy bien en aquellas partes, y aſsi lo traen verde de Nueua Eſpaña y otras partes de nueſtras Indias, y ſeco del modo de lo dela India. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pEHeQNiTzA0C&pg=RA2-PA99-IA1">p. 99</a>)</p><p>Don Francis de Mendosa, Sonne vnto the vice Roy Don Anthony de Mendoſa, did ſow in the new Spayne Cloaues, Peper, Ginger, and other ſpices, of thoſe which are brought from the Oriental Indias, and that which by him was begun, was loſt, by reaſon of his death, onely the Ginger did remayne, for it grew very well in thoſe partes, and ſo they bring it greene from the new Spayne, and other partes of our Indias, and ſome they bring drie, after the maner of that of the Eaſt India. (tr. <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:13116:80">Frampton</a>)</p></blockquote><p>And by the end of the century <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_de_Acosta">Acosta</a> could report (in the chapter quoted in full in the chili <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/04/chili-part-i.html">post</a>):</p><blockquote><p>El jengibre se trajo de la India a la Española, y ha multiplicado de suerte que ya no saben qué hacerse de tanto jengibre, porque en la flota del año de ochenta y siete se trajeron veinte y dos mil cincuenta y tres quintales de ello a Sevilla. (Vol. I, <a href="http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/56871675095670451599979/p0000002.htm#I_93_">Chap. XX</a>)</p><p>The ginger was carried from the <i>Indies</i> to <i>Hiſpaniola</i>, and it hath multiplied ſo, as at this day they know not what to do with the great aboundaunce they have. In the fleete the yeare 1587. they brought 22053. quintalls of ginger to <i>Seville</i>: (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=rZc5NQMnEAsC&pg=RA3-PA165&vq=ginger">Grimeston</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Most of the European words for 'ginger' derive from Latin <i><a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=zingi^be^ri">zingiberi</a></i> and so from Greek <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=ziggi/beris">ζιγγίβερις</a>. Medieval Latin forms included <i><a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k117578b/f75.chemindefer">gingiber</a></i>, <i><a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k117582d/f434.chemindefer">zinziber</a></i>, and <i><a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k117582d/f474.chemindefer">zinzaber</a></i>. So, Italian <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=juP027Em0EYC&q=gengiovo&pgis=1">gengiovo</a></i> and <i><a href="http://www.etimo.it/?cmd=id&id=19656&md=c821719581914cc3b351d139757165d5">zenzero</a></i> (<i>zenzevero</i>, <i>zenzovero</i>), from which Maltese <i>ġinġer</i>. Spanish <i><a href="http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3&LEMA=jengibre">jengibre</a></i>, Catalan <i><a href="http://ec.grec.net/lexicx.jsp?GECART=0069899">gingebre</a></i>, Portuguese <i>gengibre</i>, Galacian <i>xenxibre</i>; The Spanish and Catalan also occur with an initial <i>a-</i>, perhaps because of some Arabic influence (cf. <i>azúcar</i> 'sugar').</p><p>Old French <i><a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k50642k/f702.table">gingibre</a></i> > <i>gingimbre</i> > Modern French <i><a href="http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/gingembre">gingembre</a></i> (<a href="http://francois.gannaz.free.fr/Littre/xmlittre.php?requete=gingembre&submit=Rechercher">Littré</a>), Provencal <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=T7gOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA467&vq=gingebre">gingebre</a></i> (e.g., <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=m8QxAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA198&vq=ginebre">here</a>) > <i><a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k7486f/f53.chemindefer">gengibre</a></i> / <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2nkNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA344&vq=gingembre">gingimbre</a></i>. We owe fairly precise dating of an early Old French occurrence to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Becket">Thomas Becket</a>'s austerity. Shortly after Becket's murder, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guernes_de_Pont-Sainte-Maxence">Guernes de Pont-Sainte-Maxence</a> wrote a biography, between 1172 and 1174. Of his diet, he says:</p><blockquote><p>Le meilliur vin useit qu’il trover poeit,<br>Mes pur le fruit ventrail eschaufer le beveit,<br>Kar le ventrail aveit, et le cors, forment freit.<br>Gingibre et mult girofle pur eschaufer mangiet; <br>Nepurquant tut adés l’ewe ou le vin mesleit. (from the Harleian manuscript version, in <a href="http://margot.uwaterloo.ca/campsey/cmphome_e.html">Project Margot</a>'s corpus, <a href="http://margot.uwaterloo.ca/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/drussell/webMargot.cgi?start=1&language=0&word=Bkt3918&scope=5lines&format=standard&text=fey&quantity=1&newstart=1">here</a>; oddly enough, Bekker's 1844 edition of this MS hasn't been scanned; his 1838 edition of the Wolfenbüttel MS has been, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=TmYEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA94&vq=gengibre">here</a>; and Hippeau's 1859 of the Paris MS, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=InWlD-KVn74C&pg=PA136&vq=gimgibre">here</a>. See <a href="http://www.jstor.org/pss/433610">here</a> for a quick summary. As expected, these differ somewhat in spelling.)</p><p>He used to drink the best wine he could get, but this was so as to warm his cold stomach (for his stomach and body were always exceedingly cold; he used to eat ginger and clove by handfuls). None the less, he always drank his wine watered. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=MbZcAAAAMAAJ&q=%22he+used+to+eat+ginger+and+clove+by+handfuls%22&pgis=1">Shirley</a>)</p></blockquote><p>(I have not found any sign of this specific detail in Guernes' Latin sources in <a href="http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/1815-1875,_Migne,_PL_Volumen_190_Rerum_Conspectus_Pro_Columnis_Ordinatus,_MLT.html">Migne</a>.)</p><p>Old English <i><a href="http://beowulf.engl.uky.edu/cgi-bin/Bosworth-Toller/ebind2html3.cgi/bosworth?seq=495">gingifer</a></i> (< <span class="foreign"><i>gingiber</i>) occurs in </span><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bald's_Leechbook">Bald's Leechbook</a></i> (e.g., <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Z08JAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA56&vq=ginger">ii, 56</a>). And <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacnunga">Lacnunga</a></i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=aE8JAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA72&vq=ginger">iii, 72</a>):</p><blockquote><p style="font-family:Junicode">…  ı cýmen ⁊ coſ ⁊ pıpe ⁊ inia ⁊ hƿı cuu …</p><p>… that is to say, cummin and costmary and pepper and ginger and gum mastich ('white cud'); …</p></blockquote><p>This gives Middle English <i>gingivere</i> (with influence from Old French <i>gingivre</i>). So, in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layamon">Laȝamon's Brut</a></i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=JoAlAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA320&vq=gingiuere">v. 2, p. 320</a>, Calig., ll. 9-10):</p><blockquote><p>& gingiuere & licoriz:<br>he hom lefliche ȝef.</p><p>and ginger and licorice he gave them lovingly.</p></blockquote><p>And the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancrene_Wisse">Ancrene Riwle</a></i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=7BgIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA416&vq=gingiure|gingiuerc|ginger">p. 416</a>):</p><blockquote><p>Of mon þet ȝe misleueð ne nime ȝe nouðer lesse ne more — nout so much þet beo a rote gingiure.</p><p>Of a man whom ye distrust, receive ye neither less nor more — not so much as a race of ginger.</p></blockquote><p>(Notice that the other occurrence of ginger in this work concerns a holy man who ate hot spices for his cold stomach; see <a href="#zedoary">below</a>.)</p><p>Gaelic <i><a href="http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/MB2/mb13.html#dinnsear">dinnsear</a></i>, Irish <i><a href="http://www.irishdictionary.ie/dictionary?language=irish&word=sins%E9ar">sinséar</a></i>, Welsh <i>sinsir</i>, Manx <i><a href="http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/Manx/mx25.html#jinshar">jinshar</a></i> are from Middle English.</p><p>Some of the forms for the continental West Germanic languages are Frisian <i>gimber</i> (and <i>gingber-woartel</i> 'ginger-root'); Middle Dutch <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2oYVAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA7-PA1974&vq=gincbere">gincbere</a></i> > Modern Dutch <i><a href="http://gtb.inl.nl/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=WNT&id=M018906&lemmodern=gember">gember</a></i>; Old High German <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=stwRAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA182&vq=gingibere|zinziber">gingibere</a></i> > Middle High German <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zCBMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1434&vq=ingewer|ingwer|ingeber">ingewer</a></i> > Standard German <i><a href="http://germazope.uni-trier.de/Projects/WBB/woerterbuecher/dwb/wbgui?lemid=GI00414">Ingwer</a></i>; Middle Low German <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=SuwtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA664&vq=engever|gingeber">engever</a></i> > Low German <i>engeber</i>, Mennonite Low German <i>Enjwa</i>. But both Low and High German have forms with the initial <i>g</i> the other way: OHG <i>inguͥber</i>, MHG <i>gingebere</i>, modern dialectal High German <i>ginfer</i>, MLG <i>gingeber</i>, Low German <i>gemware</i>. For a discussion of this phenomenon, Ross points to an early <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PUA5AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA27&vq=ingwer+imber+ingewer+ingeber+engeber+gingibere+gemware+ginfer">work</a> by <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=5nzg8DauRlgC&pg=RA1-PA101&dq=%22Wilhelm+Horn%22+1876+1952+%22laut+und+leben%22">Wilhelm Horn</a>. The Scandinavian are from Low German: Swedish <a href="http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/show.phtml?filenr=1/106/26942.html">ingefära</a>, whence Finnish <a href="http://www.saunalahti.fi/~marian1/gourmet/multi_ve.htm">inkivääri</a>; Norwegian <a href="http://www.dokpro.uio.no/perl/ordboksoek/ordbok.cgi?OPP=Ingef%E6r&begge=S%F8k+i+begge+ordb%F8kene&ordbok=begge&s=n&alfabet=n&renset=j">ingefær</a> = Danish <a href="http://ordnet.dk/ods/opslag?id=469588">ingefær</a>, whence Icelandic <a href="http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/IcelOnline/IcelOnline.TEId-idx?type=simple&size=First+100&rgn=lemma&q1=engifer&submit=Search">engifer</a>.</p><p>Slovenian <i>ingver</i>, Estonian <i>ingver</i> and Latvian <i>ingvers</i> and are all from German. Russian <a href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=\data\ie\vasmer&first=1&text_word=%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B8%CC%81%D1%80%D1%8C&method_word=substring">инби́рь</a>, Belarusian <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=dbUYAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA420&vq=ingwer">імбір</a>, Ukranian імбир, and Polish <i>imbir</i> are from a dialectal High German <i>imber</i>; Lithuanian <i>imbieras</i> is from Polish. Hungarian <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Gq9iAAAAMAAJ&q=zingiber&pgis=1#search_anchor">gyömbér</a> (earlier <i>gyumbier</i>, <i>Giomwer</i>, <i>gengber</i>) is from Latin <i>zingiber</i>; Slovak <i>ďumbier</i> and Serbian / Croatian / Bosnian <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=6TpBAAAAMAAJ&q=dumber&pgis=1#search_anchor">đumbir</a></i> / ђумбир and Romanian <i>ghimbir</i> are from it. Czech <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hRkTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496&vq=417">zázvor</a> is from Italian.</p><p><i>Finnegans Wake</i> works a number of those European cognates into puns (<a href="http://www.trentu.ca/faculty/jjoyce/fw-182.htm">182:5-10</a>):</p><blockquote><p>(he would touch at its from time to other, the red eye of his fear in saddishness, to ensign the colours by the beerlitz in his mathness and his educandees to outhue to themselves in the cries of girlglee: gember! inkware! chonchambre! cinsero! zinnzabar! tincture and gin!)</p></blockquote><p>Modern Greek has invented <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=S5YZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA228&vq=τζεντζεφίλι">πιπερόριζα</a> 'pepper-root'. The Greek ζιγγίβερι comes from some Middle Indic source, such as Pali <i style="font-family:Code2000"><a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:132.pali">singivera</a></i>. To this corresponds the Sanskrit <a href="http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw1087-zUlAkR.jpg">शृङ्गवेर</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">śṛṅgavera</i>. The traditional etymology for the Old Indic word is from शृङ् <i style="font-family:Code2000">śṛṅga</i> 'horn' (cf. English <i><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE222.html">horn</a></i> itself), on the grounds that the ginger rhizome resembles one, and this can still be found in dictionaries as the source of a European 'ginger' word without qualification. <i style="font-family:Code2000"><a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:286.burrow">*vēr</a></i> is a common Dravidian root for 'root', such as Tamil <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.12:1:5051.tamillex">வேர்</a>; it occurs in some Dravidian <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2008/02/peanut-continued.html">peanut</a> words. And a number of Dravidian ginger <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:432.burrow">words</a> also have a similar phonetic shape, such as Tamil <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:7514.tamillex">இஞ்சி</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">iñci</i> and Malayalam <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xd0UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA99&vq=ginger">ഇഞ്ചി</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">iñci</i>. So it is likely the source is Dravidian.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Caldwell">Caldwell</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=oG0IAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA465">argued</a> in favor of such a Dravidian source, citing a printed exchange between the two authors of Hobson-Jobson, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Yule">Yule</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Coke_Burnell">Burnell</a>. Yule <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=fNAOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA321&vq=ginger">asks</a>, of the <i>Arbor Zingitana</i> (see <a href="#zanzibar">below</a>), “Can it be ginger? A Sanskrit etymology is assigned to the word <i>zingiber</i>, …” And Burnell <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=fNAOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA352&vq=ginger">replies</a>, giving mostly the argument that ends up in Hobson-Jobson, and concluding:</p><blockquote><p>If we look at the form of the Sanskrit word, it is impossible to doubt that it is a foreign word altered by the Brahmans, who, by their pedantry, disguise all they meddle with.</p></blockquote><p>Which is a Victorian's way of saying that the exact form of the loanword is altered by folk etymology to resemble <i style="font-family:Code2000">śṛṅga</i>. For a modern summary, proposing specifically a Proto-Dravidian <i style="font-family:Code2000">*cinki-vēr</i> (loss of initial <i style="font-family:Code2000">*c-</i> is a normal change), see <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=yfFt8j94VxYC&pg=PA78&vq=ginger">here</a>.</p><p>Burnell also makes parenthetic reference to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Thomas_Colebrooke">Colebrooke</a>'s edtion of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amara_Sinha">Amarakosha</a></i>. This entry reads (II, Chap. IX, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Iv8OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&vq=Ginger">sl. 37</a>; another edition, with Sanskrit commentary, is <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=XQ4pAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT387">here</a>):</p><blockquote><p>आर्द्रकं शृङ्गवेरं (स्यात्)</p><p><i style="font-family:Code2000">ārdrakaṃ śṛṅgaveraṃ (syāt)</i></p><p>undried-ginger ginger (may be)</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw0152-ArtveyI.jpg">आर्द्रक</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000"><a name="ardrak">ārdraka</a></i> is ginger is its fresh, undried, state. The long pepper <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2008/02/balinese-long-pepper.html">post</a> described त्रिकटु <i style="font-family:Code2000">trikaṭu</i> 'three pungents', a equal mixture of पिप्पली <i style="font-family:Code2000">pippalī</i> 'long pepper', मरिच <i style="font-family:Code2000">marica</i> 'black pepper' and <a href="http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw1081-zuklIkR.jpg">शुण्ठी</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">śuṇṭhī</i> 'dried ginger'. Both forms of ginger are included in the long list in Chap. XLVI of the Sutra-sthana in the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita">Suśruta Samhita</a></i> (non-Unicode / no copy PDFs <a href="http://is1.mum.edu/vedicreserve/sushrut_samhita.htm">here</a>), right after the two peppers:</p><blockquote><p>नागरं कफवातघ्न विपाके मधुरं कटु ॥<br>वृष्योष्णं रोचनं हृद्यं सस्नेहं लघु दीपनम ॥२२६॥<br>कफानिलहरं स्वर्यं विबन्धानाहशूलनुत् ॥<br>कटूष्णं रोचनं हृद्यं वृष्यं चैवार्द्रकं स्मृतम् ॥२२७॥</p><p style="font-family:Code2000">nāgaraṃ kaphavātaghnaṃ vipāke madhuraṃ kaṭu<br>vṛṣyoṣṇaṃ rocanaṃ hṛdyaṃ sasnehaṃ laghu dīpanam<br>kaphānilaharaṃ svaryaṃ vibandhānāhaśūlanut<br>kaṭūṣṇaṃ rocanaṃ hṛdyaṃ vṛṣyaṃ caivārdrakaṃ smṛtam</p><p>Dry ginger pacifies phlegm and wind; in <a href="http://www.ayushveda.com/pharmacology-of-ayurveda/vipaka.htm">vipāka</a>, it is sweet but pungent;<br>it is a warm aphrodisiac, stimulates the appetite, is savory, affectionate, easily digested, and stimulating.<br>Fresh ginger cures disorders from phlegm and wind, is beneficial to voice, removes constipation;<br>it is appetizing, savory, and aphrodisiac just like dry ginger.</p></blockquote><p>(शुण्ठी <i style="font-family:Code2000">śuṇṭhī</i>, नागर <i style="font-family:Code2000">nāgara</i> and कटूष्ण <i style="font-family:Code2000">kaṭūṣṇa</i> all mean 'dried ginger'.)</p><p>Cognates with <i style="font-family:Code2000">singivera</i> do not survive in the Modern Indic languages as the ordinary word for 'ginger', except for Sinhalese ඉඟුරු <i style="font-family:Code2000">iñguru</i>. Instead, words derived from Sanskrit आर्द्रक <i style="font-family:Code2000"><a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:999.soas">ārdraka</a></i> / शुण्ठी <i style="font-family:Code2000"><a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:66.soas">śuṇṭhī</a></i> are used, so distinguishing green and dried ginger. For instance, Hindi अदरक <i style="font-family:Code2000">adrak</i> / सोंठ <i style="font-family:Code2000">soṅṭh</i>, Urdu ادرک <i style="font-family:Code2000">adrak</i> / سونٿهہ <i style="font-family:Code2000">soṅṭh</i>, Bengali আদা <i style="font-family:Code2000">ādā</i> / শুঁঠ <i style="font-family:Code2000">śun̐ṭha</i>, Marathi आले <i style="font-family:Code2000">āle</i> / सुंठ <i style="font-family:Code2000">suṇṭh</i>, Punjabi ਅਦਰਕ <i style="font-family:Code2000">adrak</i> / ਸੂੰਢ <i style="font-family:Code2000">sūnḍh</i>, Gujarati આદું <i style="font-family:Code2000">ādu</i> / સૂંઠ <i style="font-family:Code2000">sūṇṭh</i>, Oriya ଅଦା <i style="font-family:Code2000">adā</i> / ଶୁଣ୍ଠି <i style="font-family:Code2000">śuṇṭhi</i>, Pushto ادرک <i style="font-family:Code2000">adrak</i> / سونډ <i style="font-family:Code2000">sūnḍ</i>. Some Dravidian languages make the same distinction, borrowing the word for 'dried ginger': Tamil எல்லம் <i style="font-family:Code2000">ellam</i> / சுண்டி <i style="font-family:Code2000">cuṇṭi</i>, Telugu అల్లము <i style="font-family:Code2000">allamu</i> / శొంటి <i style="font-family:Code2000">śoṇṭi</i>, Kannada ಅಲ್ಲ <i style="font-family:Code2000">alla</i> / ಶುಂಠಿ <i style="font-family:Code2000">śuṇṭhi</i>.</p><p>Dravidian <i style="font-family:Code2000">*cinki</i> may be a loanword. Arguing in the JRAS (1905, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=09MDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA167#PPA169,M1">p. 167ff</a>) against the Dravidian source proposed by Hobson-Jobson, and taken up by the OED, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._W._Thomas">F. W. Thomas</a> points out some other Asian words for 'ginger' with the same overall phonetic shape. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Burrow">Burrow</a> (<a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/609208">here</a> and <a href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119893108/abstract">here</a>, some decades later, as he wasn't born until 1909) is careful to separate out the two arguments: that the Sanskrit (and so by descent most European words) is a loan from Dravidian, which is now generally accepted; and that the Dravidian may be a loan from some common South Asian source. In this case, the other possible cognates include: Classical Chinese <i style="font-family:Code2000">ki̯ang</i> (薑, 葁, 姜; Mandarin <i style="font-family:Code2000">jiang1</i>; Cantonese <i style="font-family:Code2000">goeng1</i>), Vietnamese <i style="font-family:Code2000">gừng, </i>Thai ขิง <i style="font-family:Code2000">khĭng, </i>Lao ຂີງ <i style="font-family:Code2000">khīng, </i>Burmese ချင်း <i style="font-family:Code2000">gjin:, </i>Khmer ខ្ញី <i style="font-family:Code2000">khñi</i>.</p><p>The Middle Indic form also passed into Middle Iranian, such as Pahlavi <i style="font-family:Code2000"><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3hVkAAAAMAAJ&q=46&pgis=1#search_anchor">sangiwēl</a></i> (Ross transliterates <i style="font-family:Code2000">singaβēr</i>), Sogdian <i style="font-family:Code2000">snkrpyl</i>. From there to Aramaic <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4uQHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA139&vq=ingwer#PPA138,M1"><i style="font-family:Code2000">zangəbīl</i></a> ܙܢܓܒܝܠ / זַנְגְּבִיל, and so to Modern Hebrew זַנְגְּבִיל <i style="font-family:Code2000">zangvîl</i>. And from Aramaic to Arabic <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000422.pdf">زَنْجَبِیلْ</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">zanǧabīl</i>. Turkish <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zpwCAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA2-PA689&vq=ginger">زنجبيل</a> / <i style="font-family:Code2000"><a href="http://www.nisanyansozluk.com/search.asp?w=zencefil&x=15&y=9">zencefil</a></i> came from Arabic. Persian <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:125.steingass">شنکلیل</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">šankalīl</i> developed from Pahlavi, but <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2520.steingass">زنجبيل</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">zanjabīl</i> was also borrowed from Arabic. And Modern Syriac <i style="font-family:Code2000"><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0_JkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA87&vq=ginger">ܙܢܓܦܝܠ</a> zanjâpîl</i> was from Turkish. From Turkish, Kurdish <i style="font-family:Code2000">zenjefíl</i>, and further away, Albanian <i style="font-family:Code2000">xhenxhefil</i>, Bulgarian джинджифил, Georgian ჯანჯაფილი <i style="font-family:Code2000">janjapili</i>. Classical Armenian <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=dxFgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238">սնգրուէղ</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">sngrvēł</i> came from Aramaic, but Modern Armenian has կոճապղպեղ <i style="font-family:Code2000">kočapġpeġ</i> 'ankle-pepper', as well as զանջաֆիլ <i style="font-family:Code2000">zanǰafil</i> from Turkish and իմբիր <i style="font-family:Code2000">imbir</i> from Russian. The Ethiopic languages required some minor adjustments to the Arabic loan to fit their phonology: <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/610241">Amharic</a> ዝንጅብል <i style="font-family:Code2000">zənǧəbəl, </i>ዝንጅበር <i style="font-family:Code2000">zənǧəbär; </i><a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/596147">Tingrinya</a> ጅንጅብል <i style="font-family:Code2000">ǧənǧəbəl</i>; <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/4054954">Gurage</a>: Wolane ዝንጅብል <i style="font-family:Code2000">zənǧəbəl</i>, Selti ጃንጅብል <i style="font-family:Code2000">ǧanǧəbəl</i>, Aymellel ጅንጅብል <i style="font-family:Code2000">ǧənǧəbəl</i>.</p><p>The <a name="talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a> contains several references to ginger. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabbat_(Talmud)">Shabbat</a> 65a (<a href="http://www.e-daf.com/index.asp?ID=252">daf</a>; <a href="http://come-and-hear.com/shabbath/shabbath_65.html">translation</a>): in a discussion of rules for women, specifically what she can keep in her mouth on the Sabbath, provided she put it in before its start and doesn't put it back if it falls out, the Gemara clarifies the Mishnah וכל דבר שנותנת לתוך פיה <i style="font-family:Code2000">wəkāl dāḇār šenôṯeneṯ ləṯôḵə fiyhā</i> 'and all things permitted in her mouth' as זנגבילא אי נמי דרצונא <i style="font-family:Code2000">zanḡəbîlâ ʼî nēmî dirṣônâ</i> 'ginger and cinnamon', that is, breath freshener. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesahim">Pesahim</a> 42b (<a href="http://www.e-daf.com/index.asp?ID=726">daf</a>; looser <a href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/t03/psc07.htm">translation</a>): exceptions to the general rule that what's good for the eyes is bad for the heart and vice-versa include מזנגבילא רטיבא ופילפלי <i style="font-family:Code2000">mazanḡəbîlâ raṭīb wəpîlplî</i> 'moist ginger and pepper'. And <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berakhot_(Talmud)">Berakhot</a> 36b (<a href="http://www.e-daf.com/index.asp?ID=70">daf</a>; <a href="http://come-and-hear.com/berakoth/berakoth_36.html#PARTb">translation</a>):</p><blockquote><p>אַמְרֵי לֵיהּ רַבָּנָן לִמְרֵימָר כַּס זַנְגְּבִילָא בְּיוֹמָא דְּכִפּוּרֵי פָּטוּר וְהָא אָמַר רָבָא הַאי הֵמַלְתָּא דְּאַתְיָא מִבֵּי הִנְדּוּאֵי שַׁרְיָא וּמְבָרְכִין עֲלֵיהּ בפה״א לֹא קַשְׁיָא הָא בִּרְטִיבְתָּא הָא בִּיבִשְׁתָּא</p><p><i style="font-family:Code2000">ʼamərê lêh rabānān li-mərêmār kas zangəbîlâ bəyômâ dəkipûrê pāṭûr wəhâ ʼāmar rābâ haʼy hēmaltâ dəʼatyâ mibê hindûʼê šaryâ ûmbārkîn ʻălêh b.p.h. [bore pri ha‑adamah] lōʼ qašyâ hâ birṭîbətâ hâ bîbištâ</i></p><p>The rabbis said this to Meremar: a cup of ginger<sub>1</sub> on Yom Kippur — exemption. And doesn't Raba say this: ginger<sub>2</sub>, which comes from India, — permitted; and we say a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Jewish_Prayers_and_Blessings#Before_eating_non-fruit_produce_.E2.80.93_Ha-Adama">blessing</a> over it, “Who has created the fruit of the earth”; there is no contradiction: one is moist, the other dry.</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://cal1.cn.huc.edu/">CAL</a> glosses <i style="font-family:Code2000">hmltʼ</i> as just 'ginger', but it is clear from context that as elsewhere a basic distinction is being made on dried vs. not (with the additional complication of processing by heathens of potential food), so the Soncino <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_Epstein">translator</a> goes with 'preserved ginger'.</p><p>From Judeo-French glosses to these passages, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsène_Darmesteter">Darmesteter</a> reconstructed <i><a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k33133j/f169.table">jenjevre</a></i> as the Old French form in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashi">Rashi</a>'s time.</p><p>Ginger occurs in the Quran as the flavor of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salsabil">Salsabil</a>, a fountain in paradise (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Insan">Al-Insan</a> <a href="http://www.multimediaquran.com/quran/076/076-017.htm">17</a>):</p><blockquote><p>وَيُسْقَوْنَ فِيهَا كَأْسًا كَانَ مِزَاجُهَا زَنْجَبِيلا<br>عَيْنًا فِيهَا تُسَمَّى سَلْسَبِيلا</p><p><i style="font-family:Code2000">wa-yusqawna fīhā kaʾsā kāna mizāǧuhā zanǧabīlā<br>ʿaynā fīhā tusammā salsabīlā</i></p><p>There are they watered with a cup whereof the mixture is of Zanjabil,<br>(The water of) a spring therein, named Salsabil. (tr. <a href="http://www.answering-christianity.com/cgi-bin/quran/quran_search1.cgi?search_text=76:17-18&B1=Search">Pickthall</a>)</p></blockquote><p>(About which <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton">Burton</a> cannot keep himself from <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=S5QWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA57&vq=Salsabil+%22ginger+pop%22">footnoting</a>, “which to the Infidel mind unpleasantly suggests ‘ginger pop’.” Ginger is also apparently mentioned by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahiliyyah">Jahiliyyah</a> poet <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-A'sha">al-A'sha</a>, but I have not found his work online or a copy / scan of Geyer's <i><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/19369216">Zwei Gedichte</a></i>.) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Jeffery">Jeffery</a>'s <i>The Foreign Vocabulary of the Qur'an</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4ev7vkr4bMcC&pg=PA153">s.v.</a>) derives the Arabic from Syriac and thence back into Persian; the Syriac he derives from Pahlavi.</p><p>A folk etymology aiming to avoid non-Arabic roots (e.g., <a href="http://www.alislam.org/library/links/1-53.html">here</a>; or Maulana Muhammad Ali's 1917 <a href="http://www.aaiil.org/text/hq/comm/muhammadalienglishholyquran1917/muhammadalienglishholyquran1917.shtml">translation</a>, p. 1144, n. 2628) derives زنجبيل <i style="font-family:Code2000">zanǧabīl</i> from <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000421.pdf">زنأ</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">zanʾ</i> <i>a</i> 'to mount' (> <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000426.pdf">زنى</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">zanā</i> 'commit adultery'), so 'ascend a mountain', and <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000012.pdf">جبل</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">ǧabal</i> 'mountain'. The idea being that ginger invigorates so that one can climb mountains.</p><p>Confusion arises between زنجبيل <i>zanǧabīl</i> and <a name="zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> < زَنْجَبَار <i style="font-family:Code2000">zanǧabār</i> 'coast of the Blacks (<i><a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000422.pdf">Zingi</a></i>)'. So Hobson-Jobson points to a “shajr al-Zānij” (شجر الزانج) from India (<i>arbor Zengitana</i> — Gildemeister, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=tLk9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA218&vq=%22arbor+zengitana%22">p. 218</a>) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Toussaint_Reinaud">Reinaud</a>'s <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ldonAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA207&vq=%22arbre+du+zendj%22">identification</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abulfeda">Abulfeda</a>'s “plant of Zinj” (“arbre du Zendj” — I cannot find the Arabic text) with ginger. And to the legend “<i>Zinc et ideo Zinziber</i>” on the map in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marino_Sanuto_the_Elder">Marino Sanudo</a>'s <i>Liber secretorum fidelium crusis</i> (c. 1320). This map is now known to have been drawn by Pietro Vesconte; see <a href="http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/LMwebpages/228Fmono.html">here</a>; the images there are too small to read anything, but see the zoomable <a href="http://www.swaen.com/antique-map-of.php?id=2710">scan</a> here from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bongars">Bongars</a>' 1611 printed edition or this <a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:World_map_of_Pietro_Vesconte">scan</a> of a manuscript version. Still, it seems that this could just be a coincidence and referring only to Zanzibar and not ginger at all.</p><p>Another attempt at making ginger a toponym is based on some place named Gingi, for which there seem to be two candidates: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gingee">Gingee</a>, inland from Pondicherry in Tamil Nadu; and a place in China, though I haven't seen any specific location given. One source for the India theory seems to be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck">Lamarck</a>'s <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4AwDAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA134&vq=gingi+gingembre">Encyclopédie méthodique</a></i>, from which it was picked up by <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=fdonAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA21&vq=gingi+gingembre">Théis</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=kgUAAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA57&vq=gingi+ginger">Chaumeton</a> and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=G1ePeu3y8ZsC&pg=PA196&vq=gingi+ginger">Thomson</a>. Even the 4th Edition <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> s.v. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=1GIIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA76&vq=gingi+ginger">Botany</a> (not all the volumes are there, so I cannot tell who wrote this quite extensive article; perhaps <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Edward_Smith">James Edward Smith</a>), “As it is very plentiful on the mountains of Gingi, ſome ſuppoſe that from this circumſtance the name Gingiber or Zingiber was derived.” The China theory was advanced by <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pDkaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA210&vq=gingi+ginger">Philips</a> and noted by <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=wm4IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA153&vq=gingi+ginger">Ainslie</a>. It was picked up by an 1852 <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UnoCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA449&vq=gingi+ginger">revision</a> of Webster's <i>Dictionary</i> and included in <i>Dr. Irving's catechism of general knowledge, by a Cambridge M.A.</i>:</p><blockquote><p>Q. What is ginger?<br>A. It is the root of a plant so called from Gingi, in China, and cultivated in great quantities in the West Indies, especially in Jamaica. It has a pungent, aromatic odour, and a hot, biting taste. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=5cwDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA16&vq=gingi+ginger">p. 16-17</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The Gingi theory is proposed by some of the European dictionaries cited above and it is still possible to see it in modern food reference works (for instance, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=i4xuO9TsHf8C&pg=PA495&vq=ginger+gingi">here</a>).</p><p>Ross quotes a number of accounts by explorers in support of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabar_Coast">Malabar Coast</a> as a source of ginger. For instance, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Battuta">Ibn-Battuta</a>:</p><blockquote><p>والفلفل والزنجبيل بها كثير جدا. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2LoHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80&vq=gingembre">iv, 80</a>)</p><p><i style="font-family:Code2000">wa-al-filfil wa-az-zanǧabīl bi-hā kaṯīr ǧadā.</i></p><p>pepper and ginger are very abundant there [<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangalore">Mangalore</a>].</p></blockquote><p>And <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccolò_Da_Conti">Niccolò da Conti</a>:</p><blockquote><p>Collicuthiam deinceps petiit, urbem maritimam, octo millibus passuum ambitu, nobile totius Indiae emporium, pipere, lacca, gingibere, cinnamomo crassiore, kebulis, zedoaria fertilis. (From <i>De Varietate Fortunae</i>, Kunstmann, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KK82AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA48&vq=gingibere">p. 48</a>)</p><p>He next proceeded to Calicut, a maritime city, eight miles in circumference, a noble emporium for all India, abounding in pepper, lac, ginger, a larger kind of cinnamon, myrobalans, and zedoary. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=l2cMAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA20&vq=ginger">Jones</a>)</p></blockquote><p>And <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_Nikitin">Athanasius Nikitin</a>'s <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Journey_Beyond_the_Three_Seas">A Journey Beyond the Three Seas</a></i>:</p><blockquote><p>А Келекотъ же есть пристанище Индѣйскаго моря всего, а проити его не дай Богъ никакову кестяку, а кто его не увидить, тотъ поздорову не проидеть моремъ; а родится въ немъ перець, да зеньзебиль, да цвѣтъ, да мошкатъ, да каланфуръ, да корица, да гвозникы, да пряное коренье, да адрякъ, да всякого коренья родится въ немъ много, да все въ немъ дешево, да кулъ да калавашь письяръ хубь сія. (From <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VgUJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA338&vq=%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C">here</a>. The version linked to by Wikipedia, <a href="http://lib.pushkinskijdom.ru/Default.aspx?tabid=5068">here</a>, mostly differs within the bounds of the varia noted, except that it has fewer Ь's and Ъ's; I don't know whether they were absent in some early edition or left out of the transcription at some point. Yet another version is <a href="http://hbar.phys.msu.ru/gorm/wwwboard/voprchr/984249202.htm">here</a>, with similar differences. Search also finds a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=IkYoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA72">study</a> of the work from the middle of the 19th century.)</p><p>Calecot (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calicut">Calicut</a>) is a port for the whole Indian sea, which God forbid any craft to cross, and whoever saw it will not go over it healthy. The country produces pepper, ginger, colour plants, muscat, cloves, cinnamon, aromatic roots, <i>adrach</i> [fresh ginger — see <a href="#ardrak">above</a>] and every description of spices, and everything is cheap, and the servants and maids are very good. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=l2cMAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA20&vq=ginger">Wielhorsky</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Another other similar accounts:</p><ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Corsali">Andrea Corsali</a>: Ramusio, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58733t/f444.chemindefer">p. 178b</a>.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afonso_de_Albuquerque">Afonso de Albuquerque</a>: <i>Cartas</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=x_oFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA130&vq=jemjivre">i, 130</a>.</li><li><a href="http://www.jstor.org/pss/519518">Gasparo Balbi</a>: <i>Viaggio</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vnUBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA66-IA2&vq=zenzeri">f. 65b</a>.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garcia_da_Orta">Garcia da Orta</a>: Colloquy <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ANQGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5&vq=gengivre">#26</a>.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovico_di_Barthema">Ludovico di Barthema</a>: <i>Itinerario</i>, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58733t/f401.chemindefer">Cap. X</a>, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58733t/f408.chemindefer">XIII</a>.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomé_Pires">Tomé Pires</a>: <i>Suma Oriental</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=gNNiAAAAMAAJ&q=gingivre&pgis=1">i, 83</a>.</li><li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=sR8NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA525&vq=Leonardo+%22da+%C3%87a%27+Masser%22">Leonardo da Ca' Masser</a>: <i>Relazione</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=5RMMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA26&vq=35+33">p. 26</a>. (Cf. Hobson-Jobson, s.v. <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:394.hobson">Cannanore</a>.)</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Álvares_Cabral">Pedro Álvares</a>: <i>Navigatione da Lisbona in Calicut</i>, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58733t/f336.chemindefer">p. 126a</a>.</li><li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nZ2SHSk3k6cC&pg=PA270&vq=%22Hieronimo+da+Santo+Stefano%22">Hieronimo da Santo Stefano</a>: <i>Viaggio</i>, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58733t/f776.chemindefer">p. 345a</a>.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>: <i>Navigatione</i>, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58733t/f324.chemindefer">p. 120b</a>; <i>Roteiro</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3hQZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA88&vq=gyngivre">p. 88</a>. (Note that Ross takes Çillam to be Quilon, but most, such as Hobson-Jobson, see <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:449.hobson">Ceylon</a>.)</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Huyghen_van_Linschoten">Jan Huyghen van Linschoten</a>: <a href="http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/?/en/items/KONB10:000000000000007B/&displaypage=32">Cap. 64</a> (somewhat quirky UI; GB only has <a href="http://books.google.com/books?ei=XdNVScHODovkywSnqbGlCQ&id=BCQcAAAAMAAJ&q=gengber&pgis=1">snippets</a> and English <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_zI7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA78">translation</a>).</li></ul><p>And similarly for Kollam. So, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoric_of_Pordenone">Odoric of Pordenone</a>:</p><blockquote><p>A capite nemoris istius versus meridiem civitas quaedam habetur nomine Polumbum in qua nascitur melius zinziber quod nascatur in mundo. (Yule's <i>Cathay and the Way Thither</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KzEMAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PR13&vq=zinziber">§16</a>)</p><p>Poi venni a Colonbio, ch' è la migliore terra d'India per mercatanti. Quivi è il gengiovo in grande copia e del buono del mondo. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KzEMAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PR47&vq=gengiovo">ibid</a>.)</p><p>At the extremity of that forest towards the south, there is a certain city which is called Polumbum [Quilon], in which is grown better ginger than anywhere else in the world. (tr. Yule, from another volume in an edition only with <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=CPonoC5wVM0C&pg=PA137&vq=ginger">preview</a>.)</p></blockquote><p>And da Conti, again:</p><blockquote><p>Inque eo itinere mensem cum absumpsisset, totidem diebus Coloen, civitatem nobilem, venit, cujus ambitus duodecim millia passuum amplectitur. Gingiber qui colobi dicitur, piper, verzinum, cannellae, quae crassae appellantur, hac in provincia, quam vocant Melibariam, leguntur. (Kunstmann, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KK82AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA46&vq=Gingiber">p. 48</a>)</p><p>In that journey, he occupied one month; and departing thence, he, in the same space of time, arrived at a noble city called Coloen, the circumference of which is twelve miles. This province is called Melibaria, and they collect in it ginger, called by the natives <i>colobi</i> [<i>colombi</i>], pepper, brazil wood, and cinnamon, which is known there by the name of <i>crassa</i>. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=l2cMAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA17&vq=ginger">Jones</a>)</p></blockquote><p>And <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela">Benjamin of Tudela</a> (immediately following the section quoted in the long pepper <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2008/02/balinese-long-pepper.html">post</a>):</p><blockquote><p>וְשָׁם יִמָּצֵא הַקָּנֶה וְהַזַּנְגְבִל וּמִינֵי בְשָׂמִים הַרְבֵּה (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=p5oFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PT35">p. 91.1</a>)</p><p><i style="font-family:Code2000">wəšām yimāṣê haqāneh wəhazangəbil ûmînê bəśāmîm harbēh</i></p><p>Cinnamon, Ginger and many other kinds of spices also grow in this country. [Chulam] (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=p5oFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA140&vq=ginger">Asher</a>)</p></blockquote><p>And some for Mecca:</p><ul><li>Garcia da Orta: in the same ginger colloquy as above.</li><li>Vasco da Gama: <i>Roteiro</i>, in the same paragraph as above, where the spices are carried to Mecca.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Fabri">Felix Fabri</a>: Hassler, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WdVm2ymxH24C&pg=PA542&vq=cingiber">p. 542</a>.</li><li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC&pg=PA287&vq=%22Ibn+al-Mujawir%22">Ibn al-Mujāwir</a>: Sprenger, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=tE58eqfpFbEC&pg=PA133&vq=Zingiber">p. 133</a>. Note that Ross's source, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloys_Sprenger">Sprenger</a>, translates الزنجبيل الطرى <i style="font-family:Code2000">az-zanǧabīl aṭ-ṭarīy</i> as <i>eingemachter Zingiber</i> 'preserved ginger'. The ordinary sense of <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000137.pdf">طَرِىّْ</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">ṭarīy</i> is 'fresh; tender'. The Quran twice (<a href="http://www.multimediaquran.com/quran/016/016-014.htm">16:14</a>, <a href="http://www.multimediaquran.com/quran/035/035-012.htm">35:12</a>) uses لَحْمًا طَرِيًّا <i style="font-family:Code2000">laḥmā ṭarīyā</i> 'fresh meat'. Sampson (<a href="http://www.blueletterbible.org/Bible.cfm?b=Jdg&c=15&v=15&t=KJV#conc/15">Judges 15:15</a>) found a לְחִֽי־חֲמֹור טְרִיָּה <i>ləḥî-ḥămôr ṭəriyyāh</i> 'new jawbone of an ass'. Perhaps if the sense is extended to 'moist', as <a href="#talmud">above</a> in the Talmud, then the distinction is between dried and not-dried, the latter including fresh, preserved, and pickled.</li></ul><p>The indication being that it was a clearing-house and little was actually grown there.</p><p>The great Renaissance herbals do not add much, since ginger was well known in ancient times. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gerard">Gerard</a>, for instance, repeats what Dioscorides knew, adding a discussion of the correct appearance of the plant and a note that it does not survive in the cold. His section on names only has:</p><blockquote><p>Ginger is called in Latine <i>Zinziber</i> and <i>Gingiber</i>: in Greeke, <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">Σιγγίβερις</span> and <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">Γιγγίβερι</span>: In French, <i>Gigembre</i> (EEBO for the <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:23022:52">1633</a> edition; the <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:23253:39">1597</a> only has the first Latin name).</p></blockquote><p>Another factor may be that the brief period of ascendency over pepper that ginger enjoyed in the late Middle Ages was concluding, things returning to the state in ancient times, as they are still in today. For abbreviated references to the major sources up to the end of the 17th century, see Sloane's <a href="http://www.botanicus.org/page/406176">catalog</a>, which agrees with Acosta:</p><blockquote><p>In Jamaica & Insulis Caribeis ubique excolitur & luxuriat.</p><p>It is cultivated and abounds everywhere in Jamaica and the Caribbean islands.</p></blockquote><p>Pegolotti's <i><a href="http://tlio.ovi.cnr.it/voci/005869.htm">belledi</a></i> comes from Arabic <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000284.pdf">بَلَدْ</a> <i>balad</i>, meaning a 'country; city, town; village; place, community', that is, a delimited area; the adjective form is بَلَدِى <i>baladī</i> 'indigenous; folk-'. Applied to ginger, it could mean 'common', that is, of lesser value, or 'native (to some place)'. Since <i>beledi</i> ginger seems to have been considered superior, the latter is more likely, and the place in question is India or more specifically the area around Calicut. In fact, it would appear that it came to be considered the name of place there, since <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_de_Malynes">Gerard de Malynes</a>'s bullionist <i>The Canker of Englands Common Wealth</i> lists prices for “Ginger of Beledin in Calicut,” “Ginger of Mechino,” and “Ginger in conſerue.” (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:12224:71">EEBO</a>; modern <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=dI8tjcPEShEC&pg=PA106&vq=ginger">reprint</a>).</p><p>In Spanish, <i><a href="http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3&LEMA=baladí">baladí</a></i> now primarily means 'insignificant, trivial'. (See also the longer entry in the 1726 <a href="http://buscon.rae.es/ntlle/SrvltGUILoginNtlle">RAE</a> dictionary, to which deep links don't seem possible.) Hobson-Jobson considers this analogous to <i><a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:660.hobson">country</a></i>. Ross considers the varied senses of Spanish <i>baladí</i> and gives a series of historical quotations, not having to do with ginger.</p><p>Da Conti relates some different kinds of ginger:</p><blockquote><p>His in regionibus gingiber oritur, quod belledi, gebeli et neli vulgo appelatur. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KK82AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA37&vq=gingiber+belledi+beledi+gebeli+neli++dely">p. 37</a>)</p><p>In these districts grows ginger, called in the language of the country <i>beledi</i>, <i>gebeli</i>, and <i>neli</i>. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=l2cMAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA6&vq=ginger+beledi+gebeli+neli">Jones</a>)</p></blockquote><p><i>Gebeli</i> is, as Hobson-Jobson explains (the DSAL version does not manage the footnote; see the Google Books <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=SPJKwlITzVwC&pg=PA374&vq=ginger#PPA375,M1">scan</a>), is 'mountain' ginger, from Arabic <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000012.pdf">جَبَلِي</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">ǧabalī</i>.<i> Neli</i> in the Latin is a mistake for <i>deli</i>; it is <i>Dely</i> in the Italian text. This name is explained by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duarte_Barbosa">Barbosa</a>:</p><blockquote><p>Nel regno di Cananor vi naſce del pepe, ma non gran quantità, & è molto buono, vi naſce del gengeuo, ma non troppo buono, il qual chiamano Dely, perché naſce appreſſo il monte Dely. (Ramusio, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58733t/f708.chemindefer">p. 311</a>)</p><p>In the Kingdom of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannanore">Cannanore</a> there grows pepper, but no great quantity of it, and it is very good; there grows there some ginger, but not very good, which they call <i>Delly</i>, because it grows near <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:764.hobson">Mount Delly</a>. (tr. Ross)</p></blockquote><p>The Arab world apparently had a different three part scheme for classifying ginger. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Muwaffak">Al-Muwaffak</a>'s كتاب الأبنية عن حقائق الأدوية <i style="font-family:Code2000">Kitāb al-abniyah ʻan ḥaqāʼiq al-adwiyah</i> 'Book of [the Foundations of the Realities of] Remedies', the first Persian materia medica, s.v. زَنْجَبِیلْ <i>zanjabīl</i> 'ginger', reads:</p><blockquote><p><span dir="rtl">زنجبیل سه جنسست صینی و زنکی و مَلِیناوی ∴ و بهتر صینی بُوَذ انکه زنکی ∴ ملیناوی کِرد باشَذ و او را زرُنبای نیز کویند</span> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=LboOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PT140">p. 137</a>)</p><p><i style="font-family:Code2000">zanjabīl sih jinssat ṣīnī wa zangī wa melīnawī : wa bihtar ṣīnī bowaẕ ān-kih zangī : melīnawī gerd bāšaẕ wa o rā zuronbai nīz gūyand</i></p><p>Ginger is of three kinds: Chinese and Zanzibar and Melinawi; and the best is Chinese, then Zanzibar; Melinawi is round and they also call it Zuronbai. (cf. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4osIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA76&vq=Ingwer">Achundow</a>)</p></blockquote><p>It is not clear what Melinawi refers to; Ross glosses Zuronbai as 'resembling <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zingiber_zerumbet">Zingiber zerumbet</a></i>'. Below, commenter Alexander suggests that Melinawi is from <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.6:1:6568.steingass">ملین</a> <i>molayyen</i> 'lenitive/laxative/emollient' and points out that <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2093.steingass">زرنبا</a> <i>zuruṃbā</i> (also زرنباد <i>zuruṃbād</i>) could refer to '<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zedoary">zedoary</a>'. Hobson-Jobson has a single <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:450.hobson">entry</a> for both zedoary and zerumbet and the confusion between them. (Steingass also defines <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:8726.steingass">جدوار</a> <i>jadwār</i> / <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:1924.steingass">زدوار</a> <i>zadwār</i> / <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:3128.steingass">ژروار</a> <i>zharwār</i> as 'zedoary'.) An obsolete English word for <a name="zedoary">zedoary</a> is <a href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?size=First+100&type=headword&q1=setewale&rgxp=constrained"><i>setwall</i></a>. The other passage of the <i>Ancrene Riwle</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=7BgIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA370&vq=gingiure|gingiuerc|ginger">p. 370</a>) mentioned above refers to, “<i>of gingiuere ne of gedewal, ne of clou de gilofre</i>” 'of ginger nor setwall nor cloves'.</p><p>An excerpt from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biruni">Bīrūnī</a>'s Materia Medica (كتاب الصيدنة في الطب <i>Kitāb al-Ṣaidana fi al-Ṭibb</i>) included in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeki_Velidi_Togan">Zeki Validi Togan</a>'s compilation <a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/63858799"><i>Bīrūnī's Picture of the World</i></a> reads (p. 122):</p><blockquote><p dir="rtl">زنجبيل الرطب منه بالفارسية شنكوير … و بالطخارية شكنرفين … يجلب من ارض بربر … والمعروف عند الصيادلة انه نوعان هندى وزنجى ويقال له الصينى ايضاً – ابو حنيفة : ينبت فى ارياف ارض عمان … واجوده الزنجى والصينى.</p><p><i style="font-family:Code2000">zanǧabīl ar-raṭbu min-hu bil-fārisīyahi šnkwyr … wa bil-ṭuḫārīyahi šknrfyn yuǧlab mina arḍi barbari … wal-maʿrūf ʿinda aṣ-ṣayādilahi ainnahu nawʿāni hindīy wa-zanǧīy wa-yuqālu la-hu aṣ-ṣīnīy ʾayḍʼa – abū ḥanīfah yanbutu fī aryāfi arḍi ʿumāna … wa-ʾaǧwadu-hu az-zanǧīy waṣ-ṣīnīy.</i></p><p><b>ginger</b> fresh, for the Persians <i>šnkwyr</i> and for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocharians">Tocharians</a> <i>šknrfyn</i> (<i>šnkrfyr</i>?<small>; I don't know whether this is a misprint in the inexpensive edition and don't have ready access to a <a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/182639917">newer one</a></small>) … it is brought from barbarian territory … and it is well known among druggists that there are two kinds, Indian and African, and there is also said to be a Chinese one - <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Hanifah">Abū Ḥanīfah</a>: it grows in rural territory of Omān … and the best of it is the African and the Chinese.</p></blockquote><p>None of the three categories given in <a href="http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_de_Palencia">Alfonso de Palencia</a>'s 1490 <a href="http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/12048845338086078532624/ima0519.htm"><i>Universal vocabulario en latín y en romance</i></a> (evidently modeled after emerging Latin-French dictionaries ― see <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/334365">here</a> and <a href="http://chass.toronto.edu/~wulfric/edicta/shaw/">here</a>) are clear:</p><div style="margin-left:10px;width:350px"><table id="table1"><tr><td width="50%">Zinziber. genera habet tria, Menagloſſa, Tangetes, ⁊ leptoſilax.</td><td>Zinziber. es de tres maneras, Menagloſſa, Tangetes, Et leptoſilax.</td></tr></table></div><p>(Note that there are two <i>Zinziber</i> entries and this first one is out of alphabetical order.) Up until this post, a Google Books snippet of Ross is the only search hit for <i>leptosilax</i>.</p><p>Ross's monograph ends with three specialized indices: of words cited by language, of places named with latitude and longitude, and of authorities quoted. Many, but not all, of the ginger words have already been given above. More can be found at <a href="http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Zingiber.html#officinale">M.M.P.N.D.</a>, Gernot Katzer's <a href="http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Zing_off.html">Spice Pages</a> and <a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ginger">Wiktionary</a>. To all these, one more will be added here: Yoruba <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UuUNAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA56&vq=ginger+Atal$">atalẹ̀</a></i>. A number of African 'ginger' words (see <a href="http://www.metafro.be/prelude/view_plant?pi=13270">here</a>) are loans from Arabic, like Swahili <i>tangawizi</i>; or from English, like Zulu <i>ujinji</i>, Xhosa <i>ijinjala</i>, Igbo <i>jinja</i>. I believe this is from <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UuUNAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA56&vq=%22Ata+n+pepper%22">ata</a> 'pepper' + <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UuUNAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA133&vq=%22fle+n+earth+land+ground%22">ilẹ̀</a> 'earth'. (On the open vowel diacritic, see the peanut<sub>2</sub> <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2008/02/peanut-continued.html">post</a>.)</p><p>The next entry in that old dictionary raises an unrelated question. It is <i>ilẹ-aiye</i> 'world', as though 'earth' + '<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UuUNAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA22&vq=%22Aiy+e,+n+world%22">earth</a>', which certainly isn't inconceivable. Now <i>ile</i>, with a different vowel, is 'house'. And I have usually seen the three worlds of Yoruba cosmology explained as <i>ilé-ọ̀run</i> 'sky-house', so 'heaven'; <i>ilẹ̀</i> 'earth'; and <i>ilé-aiyé</i> 'earth-house', so the habitable world. See, for instance, this <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1158025">paper</a>. Furthermore, the term has been taken over by <a href="http://www.ileaiye.org.br/">Ilê Aiyê</a>, the first <i><a href="http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloco-afro">bloco afro</a></i>, and <i><a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0098730/">Îlé Aiyé (The House of Life)</a></i>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Byrne">David Byrne</a> film. (It seems <i>e</i> would be <i>ê</i> and <i>ẹ</i> <i>é</i>.) But sometimes it appears as <i>ilẹ-aiye</i>, such as <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/178115">here</a>. To further confuse matters, the more modern Hippocrene <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/2036994">dictionary</a> has a lemma <i>ilé-ayé</i> 'world' and a sublemma <i>ilẹ̀ ayé</i> 'earth'. Perhaps someone who actually knows Yoruba can clear up whether there are two phrases, with separate etymologies.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakov_Malkiel">Yakov Malkiel</a>, who has written a <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/7099304">book</a> on the history and practice of etymology, in an earlier <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1264002">paper</a> on its typology, calls out Ross's <i>Ginger</i> book as one of two instances of the extreme end of single word etymological monographs (the other being Flasdieck's <i><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1894452">Zinn und Zink: Studien zur abendländischen Wortgeschichte</a></i>). An abbreviated version of the <i>ginger</i> etymology appears in Ross's <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/962657">book</a> <i>Etymology: With Especial Reference to English</i> (part of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Partridge">Eric Partridge</a>'s Language Library series): a page and a half of text and a <a href="http://home.comcast.net/~mmcm/blog/ginger-diagram.jpg">diagram</a>. (The book is still in copyright, but I think it unlikely it will be reprinted after fifty years.)</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-41785566865792611842008-10-01T01:00:00.006-05:002008-12-14T12:51:25.357-05:00Watermelon<p>We probably had the last fresh whole watermelon of the summer a few weeks ago. The crate of large globular produce at the supermarket is now full of pumpkins. But the Summer 2008 issue of <i><a href="http://www.edibleboston.net/content/">Edible Boston</a></i>, a franchised locavore magazine, just showed up there. Either that, or we just noticed it. It contains an article on watermelon by Elizabeth Gawthrop Riely, who edits the newsletter of the <a href="http://www.radcliffe.edu/schles/">Schlesinger Library</a> at Radcliffe-Harvard, home to an important <a href="http://www.radcliffe.harvard.edu/print/about/quarterly/1785.htm">collection</a> of vegetarian cookbooks and where <a href="http://www.culinaryhistoriansboston.com/">CHB</a> meets. She has also written for <i>Gastronomica</i> (e.g., <a href="http://www.gastronomica.org/issues0604.html">here</a>).</p><p>The <a href="http://www.edibleboston.net/content/pages/articles/summer08/edibleTraditions.pdf">article</a> makes the following observation directly relevant to this blog:</p><blockquote>The name for a plant can often point the way to its starting point, its root, but the words for watermelon in many languages do not relate to each other. In French (pastèque), Italian (cocomero), Spanish (sandia), and Portuguese (melancia). There is no etymological tie between these Romance words. Going further afield and back, the words for watermelon in ancient languages—Greek (karpouxzi), Hebrew (avatiah), Arabic (batfikh), Persian (hinduwana), and Tamil (palam)—have no cognates. This all shows the watermelon’s prehistoric dissemination.</blockquote><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2008/10/watermelon.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>I am not sure how much can be inferred from a lack of cognates. When several daughter languages have related forms, that can indicate that a reconstructed parent had one, too. When a word is borrowed, it suggests the possibility that the object was new. But existing words can also be repurposed, as with African <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2008/02/peanut-continued.html">peanut</a> words. And cognates can diverge as different branches encounter different material.</p><p>The diversity above is primarily in the greater Mediterranean. In contrast, most Germanic languages have words exactly equivalent to the transparent English <i>watermelon</i>: Dutch <i><a href="http://gtb.inl.nl/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=WNT&id=M038947.re.1&lemmodern=watermeloen">watermeloen</a></i>, German <i><a href="http://www.woerterbuchnetz.de/woerterbuecher/dwb/wbgui?lemid=GW08947">Wassermelone</a></i>, Swedish <i><a href="http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/show.phtml?filenr=1/152/38806.html">vattenmelon</a></i>, Danish <i>vandmeloner</i>, Icelandic <i>vatnsmelóna</i>. This idea also extends to some neighbors, such as Czech <i>vodní meloun</i>.</p><p>Finnish and Estonian likewise have <i>vesimeloni</i> and <i>vesimelon</i>, but also <i>arbuusi</i> and <i>arbuus</i> from their other neighbors: Russian <a href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=\data\ie\vasmer&first=1&text_word=%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%CC%81%D0%B7">арбуз</a>, Lithuanian: <i>arbūzas</i>, Polish: <i>arbuz</i>. This is from Turkish <i><a href="http://www.nisanyansozluk.com/search.asp?w=karpuz&x=0&y=0">karpuz</a></i>, as are Greek καρπούζι (I'm not sure where the<i> x</i> comes from above) and<i> </i>Romany <i>harbuz</i>. This in turn is from Persian خربوزه <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=58MCAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA105">xarbuza</a></i>, literally 'donkey cucumber'. The modern Persian word هندوانه <i>hinduwāna</i> indicates that watermelon comes from India. But the Hindi तरबूज <i>tarabūja</i> (also तरबूज़ <i>tarabūza</i>), Sanskrit तरम्बुज <i>tarambuja</i> is borrowed from Persian <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:5592.steingass">تربوز</a> <i>tarbuz</i>. And Sanskrit खर्बूज <i>kharabūja</i> is from that same <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:3568.steingass">خربوزه</a> <i>xarbuza</i>.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermelon">Watermelon</a> (<i>Citrullus lanatus</i> — for a full name citation, see this <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1218860">note</a>) appears to originate in southern Africa. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Livingstone">Livingstone</a> found them growing abundantly in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalahari">Kalahari</a>:</p><blockquote>But the most surprising plant of the Desert is the “Kengwe or Kēme” (<i>Cucumis caffer</i>), the watermelon. In years when more than the usual quantity of rain falls, vast tracts of the country are literally covered with these melons; this was the case annually when the fall of rain was greater than it is now, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tswana#Dynasties_and_tribes">Bakwains</a> sent trading parties every year to the lake. It happens commonly once every ten or eleven years, and for the last three times its occurrence has coincided with an extraordinarily wet season. … These melons are not, however, all of them eatable; some are sweet, and others so bitter that the whole are named by the Boers the “bitter watermelon.” The natives select them by striking one melon after another with a hatchet, and applying the tongue to the gashes. They thus readily distinguish between the bitter and sweet. The bitter are deleterious, but the sweet are quite wholesome. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hgUMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA54">p. 54</a>)</blockquote><p>The bitter form is <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrullus_colocynthis">Citrullus colocynthis</a></i>, or a natural hybrid of it and watermelon.</p><p>The watermelon was known to the Ancient Egyptians. It is illustrated in paintings. (I cannot find a good image online: there is a drawing in <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/449627">An Ancient Egyptian Herbal</a></i>, but the page is not available in preview; and in “Die Pflanzen des alten Ägyptens,” <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/sitzungsberichte38kais">here</a> in the Internet Archive, Fig. 30-32 in Table III—image 167 of 1190 in the PDF, which can only be reached by going to a nearby numbered page and moving forward or backward—but even the color scan does not pick up the thin lines very solidly; and there are what are assumed to be melons among the foods illustrated in Lepsius' <i>Denkmäler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien</i>, <a href="http://edoc3.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/lepsius/tafelwa2.html">II</a>, plates 67-68.) Seeds have been found preserved in tombs. This presents a bit of a mystery, since at the time of the early cultivation in Egypt, the start of the 2nd millennium BCE, as far as archeologists can tell, no farming was yet practiced in south-west Africa, where the wild relatives of watermelon and colocynth are found, and so the most likely candidate for the origin of its domestication.</p><p>The word <img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEilXM7xjdIHxP82s-upT-P4FuZUK-7MvoSWQF6TcD6ZeOthuWi4o32_Wa0w-_djkLts8zAIHE0yPzvSzAoey0dUBl4KD9ChmqcdKiyKdUUzyJ1Y1ef8pAPSTyDEQ1BxhgjzYxCiBbHaEk8/s200/bddw-k3.png" alt="b-d:d-w-kA*M2:D52" align="bottom" style="border-style:none;" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5276950535897860562"/> <a href="http://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/servlet/WbImgBrowser?f=0&l=0&wb=1&pa=488&bc=show!"><i>bddw-k3</i></a>, which occurs in several medical papyri, is believed to refer to watermelon. For instance, a simple remedy in the Berlin Medical Papyrus 3038 (#111, <a href="http://www.hieroglyphen2.de/Wreszinski1/html/blattern_42.html">transcription</a>, <a href="http://www.hieroglyphen2.de/Wreszinski1/html/blattern_174.html">facsimile</a>, <a href="http://www.hieroglyphen2.de/Wreszinski1/html/blattern_96.html">translation</a>):</p><blockquote><p><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgiUUqqlZMMoTEVT-8SoqrqQycHHq3Ye3_5e7xJhEmLggNX308o_C7b20T26QXS2LCWKe0ry3TtolI5yu0U5ISILWXucIw8ANRqhaPg5YO3k7jXqDHNrz8f5ag2mZwEk9JaLmTSNg-Ezk8/s400/kt_bddw-k3_jrp_zwr-jn.png" alt="k:t b-d:d-M2-Z3-kA:D52-E1-Z3 i-r:p-W-W23-Z3 s-wr:r-i-N35A-A2" align="center" style="border-style:none;" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5276951442777249090"/></p><p><i>kt bddw-k3 jrp zwr.jn</i></p><p>ditto [a remedy to expel a disease caused by a demon]: watermelon; wine; drink.</p></blockquote><p>The same word occurs a couple more times there in procedures related to fertility (#193-194, <a href="http://www.hieroglyphen2.de/Wreszinski1/html/blattern_142.html">index</a>, <a href="http://www.hieroglyphen2.de/Wreszinski1/html/blattern_66.html">transcription</a>, <a href="http://www.hieroglyphen2.de/Wreszinski1/html/blattern_187.html">facsimile</a>, <a href="http://www.hieroglyphen2.de/Wreszinski1/html/blattern_127.html">translation</a>). In Coptic, the word becomes <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ⲃⲉⲧⲩⲕⲉ</span> (at least according to Budge; it isn't in <a href="http://www.metalog.org/files/crum.html">Crum</a>).</p><p>The Israelites' complaint about the foods they missed from Egypt in <a href="http://www.blueletterbible.org/Bible.cfm?b=Num&c=11&v=5&t=KJV#conc/5">Numbers 11:5</a> (encountered in an earlier post for <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/03/garlic.html">garlic</a>) includes אֲבַטִּיחִ <i style="font-family:Code2000">’ăḇaṭṭiḥ</i> 'watermelon'. This is presumably cognate, as is Arabic <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000253.pdf">بَطِّيخ</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">baṭṭīḫ</i> (I assume the <i>f</i> in the article is a typo). From the Arabic come Spanish <i>budieca</i>, Portuguese <i><a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:776.hobson">pateca</a></i> and French <i>pateque</i>, the modern French <i><a href="http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/pastèque">pastèque</a></i>.</p><p>The traditional history is that watermelon was unknown to the Greeks and Romans until the beginning of the Common Era, since there is no readily identifiable Ancient Greek word for it (for example, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VhYAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA209#PPA210,M1">de Candolle</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=kqcMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA262&vq=water-melon#PPA264,M1">translation</a>; and so more modern food histories). This is somewhat at variance with its prevalence in Egypt. A reasonable case, though not conclusive, can be made for pushing it back several centuries, as follows. (For more details, see the paper by Alfred C. Andrews of the University of Miami in <a href="http://www.jstor.org/pss/301715">JSTOR</a>). The word <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=pe/pwn"><span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">πέπων</span></a> as an adjective meant 'ripe'. Combined with <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=si/ku^os"><span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">σίκυος</span></a> 'cucumber', it named some kind of fruit that was only eaten when ripe. This was then shorted to <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">πέπων</span> as a noun. For instance, [pseudo-]Hippocrates describes <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">σίκυος πέπων</span> (<i>De affect.</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=MmkFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA266&vq=57">57</a>) and contrasts <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">σίκυοι ὠμοὶ</span> 'raw cucumber' with <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">πέπονες</span> (<i>De diaeta</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=MmkFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA564">2.55</a>). The Septuagint, in translating the passage in Numbers cited above, uses <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">καὶ τοὺς σικύας καὶ τοὺς πέπονας</span> 'cucumbers and melons'. <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=mhlope/pwn"><span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">μηλοπέπων</span></a> 'melon-apple', or perhaps 'sweet-melon', was then used for regular melons. So that <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">πέπων</span> would likely have been 'watermelon'. The Romans viewed all the Cucurbitaceae as some kind of <i><a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=cu^cu^mis">cucumis</a></i> 'cucumber'. So, of <i><a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=pe^po">pepo</a></i> and <i><a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=me_lo^pe^po">melopepo</a></i>, Pliny wrote:</p><blockquote><p>cum magnitudine excessere, pepones vocantur. (<i>Nat. Hist.,</i> 19, 5, 23, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eP3zhUhrtIgC&pg=PA265&vq=pepones">§ 65</a>)</p><p>When they [cucumbers] exceed a certain size, they are called “pepo.”</p><p>ecce cum maxime nova forma eorum in campania provenit mali cotonei effigie. forte primo natum ita audio unum, mox semine ex illo genus factum, melopeponas vocant. (ibid., <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eP3zhUhrtIgC&pg=PA266&vq=melopeponas">§ 67</a>)</p><p>behold a wholly new form of them [cucumbers] has arisen in Campania with the form of a quince. I hear that the first one was born that way by accident, and then the type was made from the seed of that one; they call it “melopepo.”</p></blockquote><p>Likewise the Vulgate for Numbers has <i>cucumeres et pepones</i>. So, while Lewis and Short, s.v. <b>pepo</b>, have, “<i>a species of large melon, a pumpkin</i>,” the Oxford Latin Dictionary, s.v. <b>pepon</b>, has, “a water-melon or other gourd.”<i> Melopepo</i> was shorted to just <i><a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=me_lo2">melo</a></i>, from which many European words, including English <i>melon</i>, are derived. (This same development was related from a slightly different perspective in the earlier <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/04/spaghetti-squash.html">squash</a> post.)</p><p>Italian developed a couple of new words for watermelon: Tuscan <i><a href="http://www.etimo.it/?term=cocomero&find=Cerca">cocomero</a></i>, derived in some way from <i>cucumis</i>; and Northern <i><a href="http://www.etimo.it/?term=anguria&find=Cerca">anguria</a></i>, apparently from the Byzantine Greek <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=JVF06_12G3EC&pg=PA65&ei=dfPnSJTlDZS4yQTj05mFAQ&sig=ACfU3U3TINbR61Or1C6RpLK0Snz86OQxQQ"><span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἀγγούριον</span></a> 'cucumber'. This may be related to Arabic عَجُورْ <i style="font-family:Code2000">ʿaǧūr</i>, according to <a href="http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/6048284">Forskål</a> <i>Cucumis chate</i>, but according to <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000244.pdf">Lane</a>, “a species of melon.” Lane derives the Arabic from the Greek and furthermore glosses both <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἀγγούριον</span> and Modern Greek <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἀγγοῦρι</span> 'water-melon', not 'cucumber'; <i>anguria</i> can also evidently mean a kind of cucumber. Also from the Greek are Slavic words like Polish <i>ogórek</i> and Czech <i>okurka</i> 'cucumber'; from the Slavic comes the German <i><a href="http://www.woerterbuchnetz.de/woerterbuecher/dwb/wbgui?lemid=GG27590">Gurke</a></i>; and from some Germanic language the English <i>gherkin</i>.</p><p>The Romance languages were not immune to the Northern <i>water-melon</i>: for example, Italian <i>melone ad acqua</i> or French <i>melon d'eau</i>. Thus <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Roch_Louis_Reybaud">Louis Reybaud</a>, writing of Napoleon's men in Egypt:</p><blockquote><p>Il fallut se passer de pain et de viande. Pour y suppléer on avait du riz, des lentilles, et surtout un melon d'eau commun sur les rives du Nil, et connu dans nos provinces méridionales sous le nom de <i>pastèque</i>. Ce fruit, plus rafraîchissant que substantiel, consola nos troupes dans leur marche pénible; il devint pour les soldats l'objet d'un culte singulier; dans leur reconnaissance ils le nommaient <i>sainte pastèque</i>. (<i>Hist. scien. Ég.</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=oBMGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA183&vq=%22sainte+past%C3%A8que%22">vol III, p. 183</a>)</p><p>Bread and meat ran out. To supplement them, they had rice, lentils, and especially a water-melon common on the banks of the Nile, and known in our southern provinces under the name <i>pastèque</i>. This fruit, more refreshing than substantial, consoled our troops on their painful march; it became for the soldiers the object of a singular cult; in their gratitude they named it <i>holy watermelon</i>.</p></blockquote><p>On <i>sainte pastèque,</i> one of the generals adds, “à l'example des anciens Égyptiens,” 'following the example of the Ancient Egyptians' (<i>Mém. de Nap.</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=E7gNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA71&dq=%22sainte+past%C3%A8que%22">p. 71</a>).</p><p>The Spanish and Galician <i><a href="http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3&LEMA=sand%C3%ADa">sandía</a></i> come from Iberian Arabic <i>*sandíyya</i>, Classical Arabic سِنْدِية <i>sindiyyah</i>, meaning that the fruit comes from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindh">Sindh</a>. The Catalan <i><a href="http://ec.grec.net/lexicx.jsp?GECART=0125079">síndria</a></i> perhaps shows the additional influence of <i>cídria</i> 'citron'.</p><p>The Portuguese <i>melancia</i> was <i>balancia</i> in the 16th century, of unknown origin, and began to show up as <i>melancia</i> in the 17th, presumably under the influence of <i>melão</i> 'melon'.</p><p>The physical descriptions in the botanical descriptions through the age of the great herbals to modern natural history already shows watermelon's variety of shapes, sizes and pulp and seed colors:</p><ul><li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=euAHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA501">Albertus Magnus</a>: <i>pepo viridis plani corticis</i> 'a green melon with a flat rind'.</li><li><a href="http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/leodeh/index.html?page=367">Fuchs</a>: <i>fructũ rotundũ, herbacei coloris, & in eo ſemina lata, & colore ſpadicea, hoc est, in rufo atra</i> 'round fruit, grass-colored, inside flat chestnut-brown seeds, that is, black in red'.</li><li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VfM1vH0H1-kC&pg=PT203">Garcia de Orta</a> (See also <i>Coloquios</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ANQGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA133">36</a>): <i>prægrande & rotundum, oblongius tamen aliquantulum, formaque quodammodo ouali</i> 'very large and round, though somewhat more oblong, and in a way oval shaped'.</li><li><a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58820r/f315.chemindefer">Mattioli</a> (illustration and comparison with true melons).</li><li><a href="http://web2.bium.univ-paris5.fr/livanc/?cote=07755x01&p=307&do=page">Camerarius</a>: <b>(shape)</b> <i>subrotundos</i> 'roundish';<br> <i>Cortice læui, herbaceo colore, maculoſo tamen</i> 'smooth rind, grass-colored, but spotted';<br> <b>(seed)</b> <i>rufo, nigróve putamine</i> 'with a red or black husk'<b>.</b></li><li><a href="http://alfama.sim.ucm.es/dioscorides/consulta_libro.asp?ref=X532395475">Dalechamp</a> (<small>Ir a </small>637): <b>(shape)</b> <i>rotundum</i> 'round';<br> <b>(color)</b> <i>herbaceo, maculoſo</i> 'grass-colored, spotted';<br> <b>(seed)</b> <i>nigrum, in aliis rubrũ</i> 'black, in others red'.</li><li><a href="http://imgbase-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr/displayimage.php?album=500&pos=669">C. Bauhin, <i>Phytopinax</i></a>: <i>Variat colore corticis qui alijs virens, alijs maculoſus, ſubcandidis maculis. Caro alijs rubens & dulcior, alijs candida: Semina colore nigro, aut rubro, aut fuluo; rariùs ſine ſemine reperitur.</i> 'It varies in rind color, with some green, others spotted, with somewhat white spots. The flesh is in some red and sweeter, others white. The seeds are black in color, or red, or yellow; rarely it is found without seeds.'</li><li><a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k97448m/f335.table">C. Bauhin, <i>Pinax</i></a> (similarly).</li><li><a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:23253:402">Gerarde</a>: “the fruite is ſomewhat rounde, ſtreaked or ribbed with certaine deepe furrowes alongſt the ſame, of a greene colour aboue, and vnderneath on that ſide that lieth vpon the grounde ſomewhat white: the outwarde ſkin whereof is very ſmooth; the meate within is indifferent harde, more like to that of the Pompion then of the Cucumber or muſke Melon: the pulpe wherein the ſeede lieth, is ſpungie and of a ſlimie ſubſtance: the ſeede is long, flat, and greater then thoſe of the Cucumbers: the ſhell or outward barke is blackiſh, ſometimes of an ouerworne reddiſh colour.”</li><li><a href="http://www.botanicus.org/page/289115">Marcgrave</a>: <i>fructus rotundus ſeu globoſus vel etiam ellypticus cortice viridi, magnitudine capitis humani, aut paulo major vel minor; carnem habet albam & in medio rubram (nimirum ubi ſemina jacent) ſeu ſanguineam ſucculentiſſimam, boni ſaporis</i> 'the fruit is round or globular or even elliptical, with green rind, as large as a man's head, sometimes larger, sometimes smaller; it has white flesh and red in the middle (around where the seeds are scattered) or a very succulent blood-red, of good taste';<br> <b>(seed)</b> <i>in quibuſdam coracini, in aliis ruffi coloris</i> 'in some raven-colored, in others reddish'.</li><li><a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k98006t/f241.chemindefer">J. Bauhin</a>: <b>(size)</b> capitis humani magnitudiné equans 'equal in size to a human head';<br> <b>(seed)</b> <i>colore buxeo obscuriore</i> 'dark boxwood color'.</li><li><a href="http://content.wisconsinhistory.org/u?/aj,8986">Josselyn</a>: “the fleſh of it is of a fleſh colour.”</li><li><a href="http://alfama.sim.ucm.es/dioscorides/consulta_libro.asp?ref=B18803131">Chabrey</a> (<small>Ir a </small>140): <b>(flesh)</b> <i>alba</i> 'white'.</li><li><a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:65251:336">Ray</a> (summarizes others).</li><li><a href="http://www.botanicus.org/page/406219">Sloane</a>: <i>Variat substantiâ sive pulpâ rubrâ vel albâ; huic semina sunt nigra illi rubra.</i> 'Varies in the contents with either red or white pulp; these seeds are black, those red.'</li><li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=NQk5AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA269">Bryant</a>: “varies very much in the ſize, ſhape, and colour of both its fruit and the ſeeds; the latter are black in ſome, red in others, and the fleſh yellow or red.”</li><li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=XRoOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA594">Lourerio</a>: <b>(shape)</b> <i>rotundum, vel oblongum sesquipedale</i> 'round or a foot-and-half oblong';<br> <b>(color)</b> <i>ruberrimum, aliquando pallidum</i> 'reddish, sometimes pale';<br> <b>(seed)</b> <i>nigris, vel rufis</i> 'black or red'.</li><li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RBcAAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA1435">Linnaeus</a>.</li><li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=6l4YAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13">Thunberg</a> (fuller <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=u90TAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA36">description</a>): lanato 'woolly'.</li></ul><p>Some very strict vegetarians in India (both Jain and Brahmin) must avoid foods that resemble meat in appearance, such as beets or tomatoes. And so, those watermelons, “of a flesh color,” are forbidden. (For instance, p. xvi of Julie Sahni's <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/230808">Classic Indian Cooking</a></i>; or this <a href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/7187">review</a> of a different book from the same year, and so perhaps copying it; or the <a href="http://walkingthefenceline.wordpress.com/2008/02/05/onions-garlic-and-eggplant/">comments</a> to this blog post.)</p><p>Another set of Indian watermelon words is Sanskrit कालिन्दकं <i>kālindaka</i>, Hindi कलिंदा <i>kalindā</i>, Marathi काळिंगण <i>kāḷiṅgaṇa</i>, and so on.</p><p>The Tamil பலம் <i>palam</i> properly means a green fruit (or edible root) in general. I have no doubt that it sometimes means 'watermelon', but a more common name appears to be <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:6802.tamillex">கொம்மட்டி</a> <i>kommaṭṭi</i>, with many Dravidian <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:336.burrow">cognates</a>. (Both words together are given by this Malaysian <a href="http://www.nu-gc.com/Watermelon.html">exporter</a>.) Dictionaries also list <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.11:1:4368.tamillex">வத்தாக்கு</a> <i>vattākku</i>, derived from Portuguese <i>pateca</i>, and so cognate with the French, Hebrew and Arabic. <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.8:1:3208.tamillex">பலம்</a> <i>palam</i> itself is borrowed from Sanskrit फल <i>phala</i> 'fruit', but also 'result; consequence', the associated verb meaning 'bear fruit' or 'burst open', ultimately from the same <a href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?single=1&basename=/data/ie/pokorny&text_number=1829&root=config">root</a> as English <i>split</i>.</p><p>According the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KgePrCOwqyIC&pg=PA438&vq=water-melon">Laufer</a>, the first mention of watermelon, 西瓜 <i>xi1gua1</i> 'Western melon', by the Chinese is in the 10th century diary of 胡嶠 <i>Hu2 Jiao4</i> in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_History_of_the_Five_Dynasties">History of the Five Dynasties</a> (五代史 <i>Wu3 Dai4 Shi3</i>):</p><blockquote><p>遂入平川,多草木,始食西瓜,云契丹破回紇得此種,以牛糞覆棚而種,大如中國冬瓜而味甘。(<a href="http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/Newwudai/xwd_073.htm">chap. 73</a>)</p><p>sui4 ru4 Ping2chuan1, duo1 cao3 mu4, shi3 shi2 xi1gua1, yun2 Qi4dan1 po4 Hui2he2 de0 ci3 zhong3, yi3 niu2 fen4 fu4 peng2 er2 zhong4, da4 ru2 Zhong1guo2 dong1gua1 er2 wei4 gan1.</p><p>As soon as I arrived at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pingchuan_District">Pingchuan</a>, I found many plants and trees, and first ate watermelon, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Khitans">Khitan</a> say that after defeating the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uigur">Uigur</a> they obtained this plant. They cover it with ox dung and and mats to grow it. It is as big as the Chinese <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_melon">winter melon</a> and tastes sweet.</p></blockquote><p>Watermelons were reported in New England in 1629 by Master Graves, Engineer:</p><blockquote>In the mean time wee abound with such things which next under God doe make us subsist: as fish, foule, deere, and sundrie sorts of fruits, as musk-millions, water-millions, Indian pompions, Indian pease, beanes, and many other odde fruits that I cannot name. (The usually cited source, <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll.</i> 1:124. 1806, is only a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=FD4hAQ95FHAC&q=water-millions&pgis=1#search">snippet</a>, but the letter is thankfully reproduced <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eHsFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA303&vq=water+millions">elsewhere</a>.)</blockquote><p>The odd spelling <i>water-million</i>, not surprising for the 17th century, is listed in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Russell_Bartlett">Bartlett</a>'s <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=gWUPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA226&vq=million"><i>Americanisms</i></a> and continues to pop up in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?q=water-million&num=100&as_brr=1">eye-dialect</a>, much of which is cringe inducing today.</p><p>Back in Europe, the Ukrainian кавун, from Arabic قاوُون <i>qāwūn</i> 'muskmelon' by way of Turkish <i>kavun</i>, also yields Polish <i>kawon</i>.</p><p>The Bulgarian любеница and Slovenian, Serbian and Croatian <i>lubenica</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=6TpBAAAAMAAJ&q=lubenica&pgis=1#search">appear</a> to be related to <i>lùbina</i> 'skull', from the root <i><a href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?single=1&basename=/data/ie/pokorny&text_number=1195&root=config">*leubh</a></i> concerned with peeling. This <a href="http://forum.wordreference.com/showthread.php?t=1016926">discussion</a> covers four Serbian / Croatian / Bosnian words for watermelon, adding <i>bostan</i>, from Turkish bostan 'vegetable garden; melon field; [water-]melon', from Persian بستان <i>bustān</i> 'garden for flowers or sweet-smelling fruits' (as opposed to باغ <i>bāgh</i> for a regular fruit garden) < بو <i>bo</i> + ستان <i>stān</i> 'fragrance place'.</p><p>And rounding out this area of diverse watermelon words are a couple simple ones: Romanian <i>pepene verde</i> 'green melon' and Hungarian <i>görögdinnye</i> 'Greek melon'. (See also <a href="http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Citrullus.html#lanatus-vulgaris-gr">M.M.P.N.D.</a>)</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-91206236186514907282008-09-02T23:07:00.022-05:002014-02-14T08:25:44.104-05:00The Gilded Age<p>Over the holiday weekend, Tim Spalding of <a href="http://www.librarything.com/">LibraryThing</a> added a feature to Common Knowledge (the site's book-oriented wiki) to record a work's epigraphs. In the <a href="http://www.librarything.com/talktopic.php?topic=44041#753945">discussion</a> leading up to this in Talk (the site's social network), Tim mentioned Mark Twain and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dudley_Warner">Charles Dudley Warner</a>'s <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/37462"><i>The Gilded Age</i></a> and its satirizing polyglot epigraphs.</p><p>From the authors' <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&vq=%22No+apology%22">Preface</a>:</p><blockquote><p>No
apology is needed for following the learned custom of placing
attractive scraps of literature at the heads of our chapters. It has
been truly observed by Wagner that such headings, with their vague
suggestions of the matter which is to follow them, pleasantly inflame
the reader's interest without wholly satisfying his curiosity, and we
will hope that it may be found to be so in the present case.</p><p>Our
quotations are set in a vast number of tongues; this is done for the
reason that very few foreign nations among whom the book will circulate
can read in any language but their own; whereas we do not write for a
particular class or sect or nation, but to take in the whole world.</p></blockquote><p>I
thought it would be fun to actually transcribe these mottoes, which
appear at the head of each chapter, into LT. And, since so many 19th
century books have been digitized, it is easy to find many of the
sources and check them. A couple of the mottoes have enough to do with
the admittedly loosely defined charter of this blog for me to post the
results here.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2008/09/gilded-age.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>The chapter mottoes for <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gilded_Age:_A_Tale_of_Today">The Gilded Age</a></i> (1873) are the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hammond_Trumbull">James Hammond Trumbull</a>, friend and neighbor of Samuel Clemens. Trumbull featured in an earlier <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/04/spaghetti-squash.html">post</a> here as an authority on the etymology of the word <i>squash</i>.</p><p>A <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZLkfAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA477">footnote</a> in Paine's biography of Mark Twain, says:</p><blockquote><p>There was another co-worker on <i>The Gilded Age</i>
before the book was finally completed. This was J. Hammond Trumbull,
who prepared the variegated, marvelous cryptographic chapter headings.
Trumbull was the most learned man that ever lived in Hartford. He was
familiar with all literary and scientific data, and according to
Clemens could swear in twenty-seven languages. It was thought to be a
choice idea to get Trumbull to supply a lingual medley of quotations to
precede the chapters in the new book, the purpose being to excite
interest and possibly to amuse the reader—a purpose which to some
extent appears to have miscarried.</p></blockquote><p>And so <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2008/04/sowing-cumin-and-basil.html">swearing</a>
in 27 languages has become a standard part of Trumbull's biography. I
have not been able to locate anywhere where Clemens actually says this,
though. He did write an obituary for <i>Century Magazine</i> (November, 1897, <a href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&coll=moa&view=50&root=%2Fmoa%2Fcent%2Fcent0055%2F&tif=00166.TIF&cite=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fmoa-cgi%3Fnotisid%3DABP2287-0055-29">p. 154</a>).</p><p>Critical
reaction was understandably varied, with some seeing it as another
aspect of the satire and others being confused. For example, a review
by F. B. Perkins in <i>Old and New</i> (Vol. IX, March 1874, p. 387: entire volume in the <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/oldandnew09hougrich">Internet Archive</a>; preview of this and other contemporary reviews in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eWVaDo38mIIC&pg=PA143&vq=mottoes&sig=ACfU3U3ji2wMJ8MAPAk4U4cFiYFx6aBaow">Google Books</a>) said:</p><blockquote><p>Nor
must the grotesque parody on the motto business, at the chapter-heads,
be overlooked. We strongly suspect that the writers may have purchased
an assorted lot of spare mottoes from Mr. Trumbull, Prof. Whitney, or
some of the other Connecticut linguists. There used to be, in “Horne's
Introduction,” or some such book, a set of specimens of the type used
in the various translations of the Bible, which we thought at first had
been transcribed; but we missed the Burmese passage. But Old French,
Anglo-Saxon, Ethiopic, Erse, Syriac, ancient Mexican, Basque, Russian,
Armenian, Chinese, Sanscrit, and in particular Chinook and Kanaka
(which Mr. Clemens could furnish), Natick Indian, and other kindred
language (which Mr. Trumbull could furnish), and even English, occur to
us. Still, if Messrs. Clemens and Warner, or either of them, do
habitually study in these and all the other languages of their mottoes,
we beg to apologize, and wish them joy.</p></blockquote>In the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ">First American Edition</a>, the mottoes appeared with no explanation at all. In the 1899 <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ">Author's National Edition</a> of Twain's works, a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP3">note</a>
was added and Trumbull's translations were put in an appendix to each
of two volumes, though Trumbull had died in the interim. These show
that the mottoes are both real and relevant and present some of
Trumbull's own satire of scholarly notes (e.g., <a href="#c37">XXXVII</a> & <a href="#c41">XLI</a>). <p>Modern
editions tend to print the earlier text, with the translations
appendix. This means that the amplifications and corrections to the
mottoes proper from the later edition are not present. Even worse,
since these are so hard to proofread, some further new errors have
slipped in. </p><p>In the transcription below, I have mostly followed
the later edition, except where it introduced errors or formatting
inconsistencies. Links to both versions are included. I have corrected
(and noted) simple printer's errors with the unusual languages and
scripts. More substantial mysteries I have left alone (and noted).
Where sources can be located straightforwardly and no commentary is
called for, I have simply linked to them inline. Where no translation
source is cited, and I have not found the text, and the language is
popular enough, such as French or Latin, I assume it is Trumbull's own
and do not call attention to it further. I have sometimes abbreviated <i>The Gilded Age</i> as GA.</p><p>Formatting
is a bit of a challenge, since some chapters have more than one motto,
each of which may or may not have either translation or commentary. So,
I've compromised on interleaving the translations (<small>rather than giving all the chapter's mottoes, then all their translations, then any commentary</small>) and adding a little mark in the margin to distinguish mottoes and Trumbull's translations.</p><p>According to Bryant Morey French's <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/6211786">Mark Twain and The Gilded Age: The Book That Named an Era</a></i>,
the original holograph of Trumbull's notes is in the Mark Twain Library
(SM-TR-1). It might be interesting to get a scan or photocopy of this.
French's article “James Hammond Trumbull's Alternative Chapter:
Headings for <i>The Gilded Age</i>” (<i>Philological Quarterly</i>,
April 1971, pp. 271-280; the journal has been scanned and so can be
accessed from a decent reference library, but I can't deep link to it)
gives some of the choices Trumbull offered the authors, based on the
same material. These alternatives are worked into footnotes to the
endnotes of the 1972 Bobbs-Merrill edition, edited by French, together
with brief bibliographical and biographical data for some of the works
and authors. The editor of the <a href="http://www.amazon.com/dp/014043920X/">Penguin Classics</a> edition only alludes to these notes, presumably due to copyright concerns.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="ctitle"><b>Title.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3">iii</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP9">vii</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA315">315</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">協力山成玉<br>同心坭變金</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Chinese:</i> Hie li shán ching yŭ: tung sin ní pien kin.<br><i>Literally</i>, By combined strength, a mountain becomes gems: by united hearts, mud turns to gold.<br>[A
maxim often painted on the door-posts of a Chinese firm—which may be
freely translated—Two heads, working together, out of commonplace
materials, bring <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">The Gilded Age</span>.]</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">In Pinyin, <i>xie2 li4 shan1 cheng2 yu4, tong2xin1 ni2 bian4 jin1</i>. In addition to mud, the same proverb is written with 土 <i>tu3</i> 'earth'. There is no indication of an immediate source and hunting around I am unable to locate a likely one.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c1"><b>I.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA17">17</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1">1</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA315">315</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Nibiwa win o-dibendan aki.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Chippeway:</i> “He owns much land.”—<i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=13JdGipTtI0C&pg=PA273&vq=dibendan">Baraga</a>.</i></p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">As will be seen <a href="#c57">below</a>, this second edition of Baraga (the only one in GB) probably wasn't the one used; the first edition is in the <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/theoreticalpract00barauoft">Internet Archive</a> (phrase appears on p. 375).</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"> <i>Eng.</i> A gallant tract<br>Of land it is!<br> <i>Meercraft.</i> 'Twill yield a pound an acre:<br>We must let cheap ever at first. But, sir,<br>This looks too large for you, I see.<br> <i>Ben Jonson.</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hQ0WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&vq=%22Twill+yield%22">The Devil is an Ass</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c2"><b>II.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA31">31</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA14">14</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA315">315</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><span style="font-family: Code2000;">መፍትው፡ሕዝበ፡ክርስቲያን፡እለ፡አልቦሙ፡ውሉደ፡<br>ይሕፅንዎሙ፡ለእጓለ፡ማውታ፡ወራዙት፡ወደናግል፡<br>ወይረስይዎሙ፡ከመ፡ውሉዶሙ፡ወፈድፋደ[፡ያፍቅርዎሙ]።</span></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Ethiopic:</i>
“It behoveth Christian people who have not children, to take up the
children of the departed, whether youths or virgins, and to make them
as their own children,” etc.<br> <i>The Didascalia</i> (translated by T. Platt), 121.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The
Internet Archive has a scan of the work from microform; the meta-data
for the series is off by one, so while it appears that <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/MN41458ucmf_6">this</a> is it, actually <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/MN41458ucmf_7">this</a> is (p. 121 is 146 in the PDF). The text:</p><blockquote><i style="font-family: Code2000;">maftəw
ḥəzba krəstiyān ʾəla ʾaləbomu wəluda yəḥṣ́ənəwwomu laʾəgwāla māwtā
warāzut wadanāgəl wayrasyəwwomu kama wəludomu wafadfāda yāfqərəwwomu.</i></blockquote><p class="motcomm">was
abbreviated to just what is on that page, or to avoid taking up another
line. Platt's translation continues (on the next page) “and love them
yet more.” One word is omitted, <span style="font-family: Code2000;">ያፍቅርዎሙ</span> <i>yāfqərəwwomu</i> 'they (masc.) love them (masc.) (subj.)', leaving the quotation to end with <span style="font-family: Code2000;">ወፈድፋደ</span> <i>wafadfāda</i> 'and abundantly', which doesn't really work.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c3"><b>III.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA35">35</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19">19</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA315">315</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Babillebabou!
(disoit-il) voici pis qu'antan. Fuyons! C'est, par la mort bœuf!
Leviathan, descript par le noble prophete Moses en la vie du sainct
home Job. Il nous avallera tous, comme pilules. … Voy le cy. O que tu
es horrible et abhominable! … Ho ho! Diable, Satanas, Leviathan! Je ne
te peux veoir, tant tu es ideux et detestable.<br> <i>Rabelais</i> Pantagruel, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=9tA6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA183&vq=Babillebabou">b. iv, c. 33</a>.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Old French:</i>
[Pantagruel and Panurge, on their voyage to the Oracle of Bacbuc, are
frightened by seeing afar off, “a huge monstrous physeter.” “Poor
Panurge began to cry and howl worse than ever:] Babillebabou, said he,
[shrugging up his shoulders, quivering with fear, there will be the
devil upon dun.] This will be a worse business than that the other day.
Let us fly, let us fly! Old Nick take me, if it is not Leviathan,
described by the noble prophet Moses, in the life of patient Job. It
will swallow us all like a dose of pills. … Look, look, it is upon us.
Oh! how horrible and abominable thou art! … Oh, oh! Devil, Sathanas,
Leviathan! I cannot bear to look upon thee, thou art so abominably
ugly.”—Motteux's <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=agkQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA295&vq=%22Poor%20Panurge%22">Translation</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The earlier GA edition has <i>Mosis</i> for <i>Moses</i>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c4"><b>IV.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA41">41</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA25">25</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—Seventhly,
Before his Voyage, He should make his peace with God, satisfie his
Creditors if he be in debt; Pray earnestly to God to prosper him in his
Voyage, and to keep him from danger, and, if he be <i>sui juris</i>,
he should make his last will, and wisely order all his affairs, since
many that go far abroad, return not home. (This good and Christian
Counsel is given by <i>Martinus Zeilerus</i> in his Apodemical Canons before his Itinerary of Spain and Portugal.)<br> <i>Leigh's</i> Diatribe of Travel, p. 7.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The original text (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:57294:12">EEBO</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=IqkgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA417&vq=Seventhly">anthologized</a>) included one more to-do item between peace with God and satisfy creditors, “Receive the Lord's Supper.” (<a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Zeiler">Martin Zeiler</a>'s <i>Hispaniae et Lusitaniae itinerarium</i> is <a href="http://bibliotecaforal.bizkaia.net/search/th/th/25,315,503,B/l962&FF=thispaniae+et+lusitanae+itinerarium&1,1,,002636,-1">online</a>; the Canones Apodemici are on p. 20.)</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c5"><b>V.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA53">53</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA39">39</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA316">316</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">دهِئَڙىَ کهٖي اُتهَارٖي پَنْهَن جٖي کهَرِ وِهَارٖي پَاڙهِينْدَا هُئَسِ</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Sindhi:</i> “Having removed the little daughter, and placed her in their own house, they instructed her.”—<i>Life of Abd-ul-Latif</i>, 46 (cited in Trumpp's Sindhi grammar, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=XKUIAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA356&vq=%22Having%20removed%22">p. 356</a>).</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">In Trumpp's transliteration scheme, <i style="font-family: Code2000;">dhiaṛia khē uthārē panhan ǰē khari wihārē pāṛhīndā huasa</i>. The Sindhi subscript alef vowel does not seem to render very well on Windows.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Il veut faire sécher de la neige au four et la vendre pour du sel blanc.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>French Proverb:</i> He would dry snow in the oven, to sell it for table salt.—Quitard, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=6n5jY5_Isg4C&pg=RA1-PA193&vq=%22il%20veut%22">193</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c6"><b>VI.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA62">62</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA50">50</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA316">316</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">十年前事幾翻新</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Chinese:</i> [<i>Shap neen tseen sze, ke fan sun.</i>] The affairs of ten years past, how often have they been new.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">A more modern Cantonese transliteration (Jyutping) would be <i>sap6 nin4 cin4 si6 gei2 faan1 san1</i>. The phrase appears to come from <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=QwaFAAAAIAAJ&pg=PT20&vq=%22Shap%20neen%20tseen%20sze%22">this book</a>.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Mesu eu azheïâshet<br> Washkebemâtizitâking,<br>Nâwuj beshegandâguzé<br> Mauwâbegönig edush wen.<br> <i>Ojibwa Nugumoshäng</i>, <a href="http://archive.org/stream/ojibwanugumoshng00amer#page/78/mode/2up">p. 78</a>.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Chippeway.</i> “So blooms the human face divine,<br>When youth its pride of beauty shows:<br>Fairer than Spring the colors shine,<br>And sweeter than the virgin rose.”<br> <i>Ojibwa Hymns.</i> (Am. Tract Society), <a href="http://archive.org/stream/ojibwanugumoshng00amer#page/78/mode/2up">p. 78</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The later GA edition adds the dieresis on <i>begönig</i>. Note that the title is actually <i>Ojibwa Nugumoshäng</i>, with an <i>m</i>, not a <i>wi</i>, and that the printed hymns have hyphens separating the syllables.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c7"><b>VII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA75">75</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA64">64</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><i>Via, Pecunia!</i> when she's run and gone<br>And fled, and dead, then will I fetch her again<br>With aqua vitӕ, out of an old hogshead!<br>While there are lees of wine, or dregs of beer,<br>I'll never want her! Coin her out of cobwebs,<br>Dust, but I'll have her! raise wool upon egg-shells,<br>Sir, and make grass grow out of marrow-bones,<br>To make her come!<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hQ0WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA38&vq=%22Via+pecunia%22">Ben Jonson</a>.</i></p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c8"><b>VIII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA83">83</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA74">74</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—Whan þe borde is thynne, as of seruyse,<br> Nought replenesshed with grete diuersite<br> Of mete & drinke, good chere may then suffise<br> With honest talkyng—<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=d71ZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA27&vq=%22And%20whan%22">The Book of Curtesye</a>.</i></p><p class="motquote"> <i>Mammon.</i> Come on, sir. Now, you set your foot on shore<br>In <i>Novo Orbe</i>; here's the rich Peru:<br>And there, within, sir, are the golden mines,<br>Great Solomon's Ophir!—<br> <i>Ben Jonson.</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=BGc4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA43&vq=ome+%22on,+sir%22">The Alchemist</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c9"><b>IX.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA93">93</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA85">85</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA316">316</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Quando ti veddi per la prima volta,<br>Parse che mi s'aprisse il paradiso,<br>E venissano gli angioli a un per volta<br>Tutti ad apporsi sopra al tuo bel viso,<br>Tutti ad apporsi sopra il tuo bel volto;<br>M'incatenasti, e non mi so'anco sciolto—<br> <i>J. Caselli.</i> Chants popul. de l'Italie, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=BuMVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA21&vq=%22Quando%20ti%20veddi%22">21</a>.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Italian:</i>
When I saw thee for the first time, it seemed to me that paradise was
opened, and that the angels were coming, one by one, all to rest on thy
lovely face, all to rest on thy beautiful head; Thou bindest me in
chains, and I cannot loose myself.<br> J. Caselli, <i>Chants popul de l'Italie</i>, 21.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The earlier printing has a defective <i>a</i>, so some later editions (for instance, the <a href="http://www.amazon.com/dp/1931082103/">Library of America</a> one) have <i>veniss no</i>.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Yʋmohmi hoka, himak a̱̱ yakni ilʋppʋt immi ha chi̱̱ ho̱̱—</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Choctaw:</i> “Now therefore divide this land for an inheritance.”— Joshua, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=M0oTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&vq=7+yumohmi+hoka">xiii. 7</a>.</p><p class="motquote">—Tajma kittôrnaminut innèiziungnǽrame, isikkæne sinikbingmun illièj, annerningærdlunilo siurdliminut piok.<br> <i>Mos. Agl. Siurdl.</i> 49.32.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Eskimo</i> (<i>Greenland</i>),
from Fabricius's translation of Genesis:—“And when he had made an end
of commanding his sons, he gathered up his feet into the bed, and
yielded up the ghost, and was gathered unto his people.”<br> <i>First Book of Moses</i>, xlix. 32.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">It does not seem to be online, but I scanned the relevant page (<a href="http://home.comcast.net/%7Emmcm/scans/gilded-age/Fabricius-198_199.jpg">198</a>) from <i><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20266756">Testamentitokamit, mosesim aglegèj siurdleet</a>.</i> The GA text is missing an accent on <i>innèiziungnǽrame</i>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c10"><b>X.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA100">100</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93">93</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA317">317</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—Okarbigàlo: “Kia pannigátit? Assarsara! uamnut nevsoïngoarna”—<br> <i>Mo. Agleg. Siurdl.</i> 24.23.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Eskimo:</i>—“And said, ‘Whose daughter art thou? tell me, I pray thee.’”— Gen. xxiv. 23.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Again, I scanned the page (<a href="http://home.comcast.net/%7Emmcm/scans/gilded-age/Fabricius-84_85.jpg">84</a>) of Fabricius's Genesis.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><span style="font-family: Code2000;">Nꝏtah nuttaunes, natwontash,<br> Kukkeihtash, wonk yeuyeu<br>Wannanum kummissinninnumog<br> Kah Kꝏsh week pannuppu.</span></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Massachusetts Indian</i>
(Eliot's version of Psalm xlv. 10): “Harken, O daughter, and consider,
and incline thine ear; forget also thine own people, and thy father's
house.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The earlier edition properly uses Eliot's vowel <i style="font-family: Code2000;">ꝏ</i>; later editions tend to just write <i>oo</i>. This is Eliot's <em>metrical</em> version of the Psalm. The metrical Psalms were published separately (see entries in this <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=iOHzHQUF-2gC&pg=PA152">bibliography</a>) and as well as bound with the 1663 Bible (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:132643:567">EEBO</a>). The main Bible contains a prose translation, in both the 1663 (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:132643:269">EEBO</a>) and 1685 (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:110460:271">EEBO</a>) editions:</p><blockquote><span style="font-family: Code2000;">Nꝏtah (nuttaunes) kah natwontash kah kukkeitash: wannanum wonk nehenwonche kummissinninnumog, kah kꝏsh week.</span></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The extra words added to fit the metre are <i>yeuyeu</i> 'now' and <i>pannuppu</i> 'thoroughly'.</p><p class="motcomm">Trumbull later owned an Eliot Bible, which he bought at the Brinley sale for <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ckUSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA104&vq=789">$500</a>, “very appropriately,” the New York Times <a href="http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D00EFD6123EE73BBC4A52DFB5668382669FDE">wrote</a>,
as he was, “the only man in the wide world who can read the language in
which it is printed.” He made a detailed study of Eliot's translations,
publishing a <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/310228">paper</a> on mistakes others had made in similar efforts. And of the Algonquian languages generally: in addition to the <a href="http://www.jstor.org/pss/2476136">paper</a> cited in the earlier post and the posthumous <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cu4NAAAAIAAJ">Natick Dictionary</a></i>, he wrote <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/310254">one</a> on native words in English and <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/310262">another</a> detailing 40 versions of the Lord's Prayer, of particular interest to <a href="http://www.librarything.com/tag/pater+noster">Pater Noster collectors</a>. Of further interest for this blog were studies of native food plant words: he co-authored (with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asa_Gray">Asa Gray</a>) a <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2994251">note</a> on the Jerusalem Artichoke and a review of de Candolle (Part <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PI8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA241">I</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PI8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA370">II</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=BrcEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA128">III</a>; mentioned in this <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=gAoVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA169">biography</a>). His chronicle, “Origin and early progress of Indian missions in New England,” is <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UcILAAAAIAAJ&q=trumbull&pgis=1http://books.google.com/books?id=UcILAAAAIAAJ&q=trumbull&pgis=1">snippet view</a>. (But available in the <a href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015011358721;seq=408;num=24">Hathi Trust</a>. For even more, see the entries in that same <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=iOHzHQUF-2gC&pg=RA3-PA496">bibliography</a>.)</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—La
Giannetta rispose: Madama, voi dalla povertà di mio padre togliendomi,
come figliuola cresciuta m'avete, e per questo ogni vostro piacer far
dovrei—<br> <i>Boccacio,</i> Decam. Giorno 2, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eXv79p2kRz0C&pg=RA1-PA174&vq=%22Giannetta+rispose%22">Nov. 8</a>.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Italian:</i>—“Jeannette
answered: 'Madame, you have taken me from my father and brought me up
as your own child, and for this I ought to do all in my power to please
you.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The GA text prints <i>agni</i> for <i>ogni</i>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c11"><b>XI.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA108">108</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA104">104</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA317">317</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">くらへどもあじしらず</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Japan:</i> Though he eats, he knows not the taste of what he eats.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The handwritten text uses a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hentaigana">hentaigana</a> form of し <i>shi</i>,
based on 志; fortunately, it's one of the common ones and even included
in the Wikipedia's short sample. It took me a bit to realize that it is
written right-to-left — after remembering that 'taste' is <i>aji</i> (あじ = 味) from reading an interesting article on the history of MSG and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajinomoto">Ajinomoto</a> Company in <i><a href="http://gastronomica.org/issues0504.html">Gastronomica</a></i>. So it reads, <i>kurahedomo aji shirazu</i>.
I did not find this online in this form, but in comments below and at
LanguageHat, John Emerson and IllVes recognize this as the Japanese
version of a passage from commentary by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zengzi">Zengzi</a> (曾子) on <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Learning">The Great Learning</a></i> (大學; VII, 2):</p><blockquote><p>心焉に在らざれば、視れども見えず、聴けども聞こえず、食らえども其の味を知らず。</p><p><i>kokoro koko ni arazareba, miredomo miezu, kikedomo kikoezu, kuraedomo sono aji o mirazu.</i></p><p>心不在焉、視而不見、聽而不聞、食而不知其味。</p><p><i>xin1 bu4 zai4 yan1, shi4 er2 bu4 jian4, ting1 er2 bu4 wen2, shi2 er2 bu4 zhi1 qi2 wei4.</i></p><p>When
the mind is not present, we look and do not see; we hear and do not
understand; we eat and do not know the taste of what we eat. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=FjkOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA368">Legge</a>)</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c12"><b>XII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA114">114</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA112">112</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA317">317</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhpgztpxeiXfS9rnRZew0b76v3HQq0U5kYM8qkvfaN5JZ_X23OhGI-RqPQq0O28NgqdHvTLPiKkwzZqQSgua1o9IX1y8gJS2K_cSf2_pyY7ZaZx5JiA0FbZ3Utfq9aHwDIEn2Dlk9-G6E/s200/gilded-age-xii-1.png" alt="i-q:r-Y1-m-imnt-t:t-N25" title="jqr m jmn.tt" style="border-style: none;" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5243872431770414530" align="bottom"> <img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirjKXPYwsA3kEaVz2Hlzy-UG8eS3jRLgXQrqG9dlIoDOAhpJ7ON8P18kT_tdKJns2yp0Yt1nCS1OHNF0fiHePnFpK1nJqccEuCFJFvHKCyF4W2V3dw8yWwI6Iw10CUUZqgn8Ntgj31gwk/s200/gilded-age-xii-2.png" alt="N31:t*Z2-imnt-t:t-N25" title="w3.wt jmn.tt" style="border-style: none;" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5243872434059160898" align="bottom"><br> <i>Todtenbuch,</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RQE2AQAAMAAJ&pg=PT132#v=onepage&q&f=false">141</a>. 17, 4.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Egyptian</i>
(from the Book of the Dead, or Funereal Ritual, edited by Lepsius from
the Turin papyrus; translated by Birch). “The Preparation in the West.
The Roads of the West.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Birch's <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=yBgGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA276#v=onepage&q&f=false">translation</a> appears in Bunsen's <i>Egypt's Place in Universal History</i>, vol. 5. The papyrus is <a href="http://www.museoegizio.it/pages/iuefankh.jsp">item 1791</a> in the Museo Egizio di Torino; the Italian government commissioned a small number of special <a href="http://www.ilbulinoedizionidarte.it/italiano/facsimili_258.asp?id=258">reproductions</a> for diplomatic purposes, but did not make the digital photos available. Lepsius's plates are also reproduced in Davis's <i><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2111862&ht=edition">Egyptian Book of the Dead</a></i>, which I have a copy of and from which I have made a bigger scan of the relevant <a href="http://home.comcast.net/%7Emmcm/scans/gilded-age/Davis-141.jpg">plate</a>. The Egyptian text is online in the <a href="http://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/index.html">TLA</a>, but has been somewhat normalized by lemma so that you cannot always tell how something is spelled. There: <a href="http://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/servlet/GetCtxt?tc=15559&ws=450&mv=4">141 [17,3]</a>: <i style="font-family: Code2000;">jqr m jmn.tt</i>; <a href="http://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/servlet/GetCtxt?tc=15559&ws=288&mv=4">141 [4,3]</a>: <i style="font-family: Code2000;">w3.wt jmn.tt</i>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c13"><b>XIII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA122">122</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA122">122</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">What ever to say he toke in his entente,<br>his langage was so fayer & pertynante,<br>yt semeth vnto manys herying<br>not only the worde, but veryly the thyng.<br> <i>Caxton's</i> Book of Curtesye, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=d71ZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA35&vq=%22What+euer%22">l. 340-343</a> (ed., E. E. Text Society).</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The exact spelling is that in the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=d71ZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR14&vq=fayer+pertynante">Preface</a> to the EETS edition, not the critical text, which like Caxton's printing (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:17889:9">EEBO</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=D5MNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT28">reprint</a>) had slightly different spelling, such <i>fayr</i> and <i>mannys</i>. This also explains why the line numbers are off: the reference there is to 343, meaning the <em>last</em> line, not the first.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c14"><b>XIV.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA132">132</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA134">134</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA317">317</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Pulchra duos inter sita stat Philadelphia rivos;<br> Inter quos duo sunt millia longa viæ.<br>Delawar his major, Sculkil minor ille vocatur;<br> Indis et Suevis notus uterque diu.<br>Hîc plateas mensor spatiis delineat æquis,<br> Et domui recto est ordine juncta domus.<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=u4IFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA370&vq=%22duos+inter%22">T. Makin</a>.</i></p><p class="mottrans">From Thomas Makin's <i>Description of Pennsylvania</i> (Descriptio Pennsylvaniæ) 1729. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=u4IFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA371&vq=%22Fair+Philadelphia%22">Translated</a> [?] by Robert Proud:<br>“Fair Philadelphia next is rising seen,<br>Between two rivers plac'd, two miles between,<br>The Delaware and Sculkil, new to fame,<br>Both ancient streams, yet of a modern name.<br>The city, form'd upon a beauteous plan,<br>Has many houses built, tho' late began;<br>Rectangular the streets, direct and fair;<br>And rectilinear all the ranges are.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Two
lines are left out of the Latin, though all eight are included in the
translation (which does not quite line up line-for-line):</p><blockquote>Ædibus ornatur multis urbs limite longo,<br> Quæ parva emicuit tempore magna brevi.</blockquote><blockquote><p class="motquote">Vergin era fra lor di già matura<br> Verginità, d'alti pensieri e regi,<br>D'alta beltà; ma sua beltà non cura,<br> O tanta sol, quant' onestà sen fregi.<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=V3wRvmGYXPkC&pg=PA25&vq=Vergin">Tasso</a>.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Italian</i> (translated by Wiffen—from Tasso):<br>“Of generous thoughts and principles sublime,<br>Amongst them in the city lived a maid,<br>The flower of virgins, in her ripest prime,<br>Supremely beautiful! but that she made<br>Never her care, or beauty only weighed<br>In worth with virtue.”<br> <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=r1AsAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA32&vq=%22generous+thoughts%22">c. ii., st. 14</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c15"><b>XV.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA139">139</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA143">143</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA318">318</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—Rationalem
quidem puto medicinam esse debere: instrui vero ab evidentibus causis;
obscuris omnibus non à cogitatione artificis, sed ab ipsa arte
rejectis. Incidere autem vivorum corpora, et crudele, et supervacuum
est: mortuorum corpora discentibus necessarium.<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_0wEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA31&vq=ra+tionalem">Celsus</a>.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Latin:</i>
[Celsus] I think the healing art ought to be based on reason to be
sure, and too that it should be founded on unmistakable evidences, all
uncertainties being rejected, not from the serious attention of a
physician, but from the very profession itself.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The same English translation occurs in this <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=wpJYAAAAMAAJ&q=%22i+think+the+healing+art+ought+to+be+based+on+reason%22&ei=dYjASNe1D4LoyATa9NnGBw&pgis=1">magazine</a>, but since it's a snippet, it's hard to tell what the original source is.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c16"><b>XVI.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA149">149</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA155">155</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA318">318</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8EwAYHKtmJu3tLUWVnDh57OfAGi5cQXvflHmBupEE2qhQ4BrGsC0PBdBXsQ4StUHHtrhgzUTuYRzDHaznfgBBUJsrsKVMxzySk5LkoP2Ph17PIjogtjv34NkSALPykUJFALuDQVqKNF8/s200/gilded-age-xvi-1.png" alt="ii-i-D54-n:A1" title="jy.n.j" style="border-style: none;" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5243872434650270530" align="bottom"> <img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjgHKeYSRjWoBLcHwSrWudBVXqzfJZtwXreNZc-JXH2ah510H3JtZ0rRY0fRpmtxT8UvjISeax1s5QHqxJi5z3LDyKGHfjiqk8d0GyUu-UvXVn0yV-ViF5PjhBPdR40FpabLC3a5aZ1-Wg/s200/gilded-age-xvi-2.png" alt="ir:t-N31-t:Z1-t-w-t-A53-sw-w-W24:k-A1" title="jrt w3t twt sw jnk" style="border-style: none;" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5243872441976434546" align="bottom"><br> <i>Todtenbuch,</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RQE2AQAAMAAJ&pg=PT94#v=onepage&q&f=false">117</a>. 1, 3.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Egyptian</i> (from the Book of the Dead), in Birch <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=yBgGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA248#v=onepage&q&f=false">translation</a>: “I have come.” “<i>Make Road</i> expresses what I am” (i.e., is my name).</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Again, I have scanned the relevant <a href="http://home.comcast.net/%7Emmcm/scans/gilded-age/Davis-115_119.jpg">plate</a> from Davis. Also online in the <a href="http://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/servlet/GetTextDetails?tc=15531">TLA</a>: 117 [1] <i style="font-family: Code2000;">jy.n.j</i>; [3] <i style="font-family: Code2000;">jrt w3t twt sw[t] jnk</i>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c17"><b>XVII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA159">159</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA166">166</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—“We have view'd it,<br>And measur'd it within all, by the scale:<br>The richest tract of land, love, in the kingdom!<br>There will be made seventeen or eighteen millions,<br>Or more, as't may be handled!<br> <i>Ben Jonson.</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hQ0WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA55&vq=%22We+have+view%27d+it%22">The Devil is an Ass</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c18"><b>XVIII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA168">168</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA176">176</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA318">318</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><span style="font-family: Code2000;">ⵏⵔⵜⴳⵎⴹⵙⴾⵍⵏⵜⵏⵔⴰ<br>ⵓⵔⵉⵈⵎⵍⵙⵓⵔⵏⵜⵜⴾⴰ</span><br> <i>Bedda ag Idda.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Tamachekh</i> (<i>Touareg</i>): From an improvisation by a native poet, at Algiers; printed by Hanoteau, <i>Essai de Grammaise de Langue Tamackek</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=TCYUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA207">p. 207</a>.<br>—If she should come to our country (the plains), there is not a man who would not run to see her.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Hanoteau also gives a transliteration:</p><blockquote><i>enner teg'medh s ikallen n tiniri<br>our ik'k'im ales our en tet ikki.</i></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The Tifinagh character set in Unicode is just the bare minimum: there is no support for the square <span style="font-family: Code2000;">ⵔ</span>, or the directional variants of <span style="font-family: Code2000;">ⵎ</span> and <span style="font-family: Code2000;">ⴳ</span> when writing right-to-left, or the diagonal variant of <span style="font-family: Code2000;">ⵏ</span> used when it is next to <span style="font-family: Code2000;">ⵍ</span> or another <span style="font-family: Code2000;">ⵏ</span>. The title of the book is printed <i>Langeu.</i></p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—“E ve us lo covinentz qals er,<br>Que voill que m prendatz a moiler.<br>—Qu'en aissi l'a Dieus establida,<br>Per que non pot esser partida.” <i>Roman de Jaufre.</i><br> <i>Raynouard.</i> Lexique Roman, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xX0CAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA39&vq=%22e+ve+us+lo%22">i. 139</a>.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Romance:</i><br>—“Enough! she cries, henceforth thou art<br>The friend and master of my heart.<br>No other covenant I require<br>Than this: ‘I take thee for my wife.’<br>That done, enjoy thy heart's desire,<br>Of me and mine the lord for life.”<br> A. Bruce Whyte's <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vwkJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA385&vq=%22Enough+she+cries%22">paraphrase</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Eight
lines are omitted from the Occitan, though nothing is trimmed from the
corresponding translation. The earlier GA edition has <i>Eve</i> for <i>E ve</i>, <i>convintz</i> for <i>covinentz</i>, and <i>prendats</i> for <i>prendatz</i>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c19"><b>XIX.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA177">177</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA187">187</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA318">318</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><span style="font-family: Kleist-Fraktur;">Wie entwickeln ſich doch ſchnelle,<br>Aus der flüchtigſten Empfindung,<br>Leidenſchaften ohne Grenzen<br>Und die zärtlichſte Verbindung!<br> Täglich wächſt zu dieſer Dame<br>Meines Herzens tiefſte Neigung,<br>Und dass ich in ſie verliebt ſei,<br>Wird mir faſt zür Ueberzeugung.<br></span> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=41MYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA35&vq=4+%22Wie+entwickeln%22">Heine</a></i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>German:</i> from the “Book of Songs” (Angelique, 4) of Heine.<br>“O how rapidly develop<br>From mere fugitive sensations<br>Passions that are fierce and boundless,<br>Tenderest associations!<br>Tow'rds this lady grows the bias<br>Of my heart on each occasion,<br>And that I'm enamoured of her<br>Has become my firm persuasion.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The English translation appears to be <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=FO4oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA110&vq=10">Bowring's</a>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c20"><b>XX.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA186">186</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA198">198</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA318">318</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><span style="font-family: Gadelica;">—Buaḃall
bionngloraċ go mbuaiḋ ninnscne & nurlaḃra ceille, & coṁairle,
go ttaidḃriḋ seirce ina ḋreiċ attar lá gaċ aen at as cíoḋ—</span></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Old Irish:</i> from the <i>Annals of the Four Masters</i> (vol. vi., <a href="http://archive.org/stream/annalsofkingdomo06ocleuoft#page/2298/mode/2up">p. 2298</a>). O'Donovan translates:<br>—“A
sweet-sounding trumpet; endowed with the gift of eloquence and address,
of sense and counsel, and with the look of amiability in his
countenance, which captivated every one who beheld him.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Both <a href="http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100005F/text014.html">text</a> (in Roman type) and <a href="http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100005F/text014.html">translation</a> have also been transcribed into CELT. There is one vowel difference: <i>ttaidbhridh</i> for <i>ttaidbhr<u>e</u>dh</i>; the character written as <i><u>e</u></i> (another convention is to use <i>ę</i>)
is the “tall e”. O'Donovan's font had it, but Trumbull's may not have;
none of the Unicode fonts I can find do. A scan of the original
manuscript is in ISOS; the cited passage is <a href="http://www.isos.dias.ie/libraries/RIA/RIA_MS_23_P_7/small_jpgs/553.jpg">f. 273 r</a>, starting on the third line at the right (the troublesome word is at the end of the next line).</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c21"><b>XXI.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA194">194</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA207">207</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA319">319</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Unusquisque sua noverit ire via.—<br> <i>Propert.</i> Eleg. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=gy2MBhgp4QcC&pg=PA57&dq=%22Unusquisque+sua+noverit+ire+via%22">ii. 25</a>.</p><p class="mottrans">[Let each one know how to follow his own path.]</p><p class="motquote"> O lift your natures up:<br>Embrace our aims: work out your freedom. Girls,<br>Knowledge is now no more a fountain sealed;<br>Drink deep until the habits of the slave,<br>The sins of emptiness, gossip and spite<br>And slander, die.<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WoIAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA42&dq=%22O+lift+your+natures+up%22">The Princess</a>.</i></p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c22"><b>XXII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA202">202</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA216">216</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA319">319</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Wohl giebt es im Leben kein süsseres Glück,<br>Als der Liebe Geständniss im Liebchen's Blick;<br>Wohl giebt es im Leben nicht höhere Lust,<br>Als Freuden der Liebe an liebender Brust.<br>Dem hat nie das Leben freundlich begegnet,<br>Den nicht die Weihe der Liebe gesegnet.<br> Doch der Liebe Glück, so himmlisch, so schön<br> Kann nie ohne Glauben an Tugend bestehn.<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=XBcQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA125&dq=%22Wohl+giebt+es+im+Leben%22">Körner</a>.</i></p><p class="mottrans">“Is there on earth such a transport as this,<br>When the look of the loved one avows her bliss?<br>Can life an equal joy impart<br>To the bliss that lives in a lover's heart?<br>O! he, be assured, hath never proved<br>Life's holiest joys who hath never loved!<br>Yet the joys of love, so heavenly fair,<br>Can exist but when honor and virtue are there.”<br> <i>Translated by <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=sUQHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=%22Is+there+on+earth%22">Richardson</a>.</i></p><p class="motquote">O ke aloha ka mea i oi aku ka maikai mamua o ka umeki poi a me ka ipukaia.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Hawaiian:</i> Love is that which excels in attractiveness (is much better than) the dish of <i>poi</i> and the <i>fish-bowl</i> (the favorite dishes of the Islanders).</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">I imagine that all the Hawaiian mottoes (see also <a href="#c48">XLVIII</a> and <a href="#c63">LXIII</a>) came from a single source, as most other languages that occur more than once do. If so, it seems to be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorrin_Andrews">Lorrin Andrews</a>'s <i>Dictionary of the Hawaiian Language</i>, although the translations are not verbatim. This proverb occurs <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=JjcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA82&dq=%22O%20ke%20aloha%20ka%20mea%22">here</a>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c23"><b>XXIII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA213">213</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA229">229</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">“O see ye not yon narrow road<br>So thick beset wi' thorns and briers?<br>That is the Path of Righteousness,<br>Though after it but few inquires.<br><br>“And see ye not yon braid, braid road,<br>That lies across the lily leven?<br>That is the Path of Wickedness,<br>Though some call it the road to Heaven.”<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=oDFlAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3">Thomas the Rhymer</a>.</i></p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c24"><b>XXIV.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA217">217</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA233">233</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA319">319</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><i>Cante-teca.</i> Iapi-Waxte otonwe kin he cajeyatapi nawaḣon; otonwe wijice ḣinca keyapi se wacanmi.<br><i>Toketu-kaxta.</i> Han, hecetu; takuwicawaye wijicapi ota hen tipi.<br> <i>Mahp. Ekta Oicim. ya.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Sioux-Dakota</i> (from Riggs's translation of Bunyan's <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i>).<br>“<i>Christian.</i> This town of Fair-Speech—I have heard of it; and as I remember, they say it's a wealthy place.<br><i>By-Ends.</i> Yes, I assure you that it is; and I have very many rich kindred there.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">I cannot find Riggs's <a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8137834"><i>Mahpiya Ekta Oicimani ya</i></a> online, but I have scanned the relevant page (<a href="http://home.comcast.net/%7Emmcm/scans/gilded-age/Riggs-156_157.jpg">157</a>).</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c25"><b>XXV.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA228">228</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA245">245</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA319">319</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><span style="font-family: Assurbanipal;">𒀀𒂡 𒆗𒆗𒋾</span></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Assyrian:</i>—“A place very difficult.”<br> <i>Smith's Assurbanipal</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0cgUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA269&vq=%22place+very+difficult%22">p. 269</a> (l. 90).</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">(A Neo-Assyrian Unicode font can be downloaded <a href="http://www.hethport.uni-wuerzburg.de/cuneifont/">here</a>.) Smith transliterates this text, from Prism A, col. viii, <i>a-sar dan-dan-ti</i>. Others, including Streck, read the second word as <i>kal-kal-ti</i> (same sign, different phonetic; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0YJhAAAAMAAJ&q=kal.kal.ti&pgis=1">snippet</a>; unfortunately, the Internet Archive only has <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/assurbanipalundd01streuoft">Vol. I</a>), '<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HCKH8Pw7CawC&pg=PA586&vq=kal.kal.ti">hunger</a>', so that the sense of the phrase is 'wasteland'. (See this <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_y8DAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA66&vq=kal-kal-ti">translation</a> and its <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_y8DAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&vq=kal-kal-ti">endnote</a>; and <a href="http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/catalog/cad/">CAD</a> s.v. <b>galgaltu A</b>.)</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c26"><b>XXVI.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA235">235</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253">253</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA319">319</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">பணம் மெத்த அரிதாய் இருக்கி்றது</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Tamul:</i> Money is very scarce.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The phrase, <i style="font-family: Code2000;">paṇam metta aritāy irukkiṟatu</i>, appears to come from a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Z8MyAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA56&dq=%22Money+is+very+scarce%22">phrase-book</a>
intended to teach English to Tamil speakers. As printed in GA, பணம்
எமத்த அரிதாய் இருக்தி்றது, there are a couple of printer's errors where
similar looking letters are substituted. Using the initial isolated
form of the vowel instead of the combining form (which goes on the
left) makes எமத்த <i style="font-family: Code2000;">ematta</i>. I don't think இருக்தி்றது <i style="font-family: Code2000;">iruktiṟatu</i>, with a த <i>t</i> instead of க k, is a form of இரு <i style="font-family: Code2000;">iru</i> 'to be'; it may not even be phonologically sound. In addition to இருக்கி்றது <i style="font-family: Code2000;">irukkiṟatu</i>, another version of the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_guCZJ32wEsC&pg=PA59&dq=%22Money+is+very+scarce%22">phrase-book</a> has இருக்கி்று <i style="font-family: Code2000;">irukkiṟa</i> (or I'm being faked out by the edge of the scan), and yet another <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=O2EIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA61&dq=%22Money+is+very+scarce%22">one</a> that looks to be a somewhat different dialect, ருக்கின்றது <i style="font-family: Code2000;">rukkiṉṟatu</i>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c27"><b>XXVII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA244">244</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264">264</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA319">319</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcH-WNveiHBmXD6ynzpN6_vkLMFjzDzQ_jX4O5X_tb12ez7Jy8JM8O7ZmEoDV1iBQv9tVtzNN2JTchAYzkM288ANNFMecpLoU6OZ6yUPwGITNCbG0HfUnbFUTtEvO9cHv0fAc4M_kdLyM/s200/gilded-age-xxvii-1.png" alt="x-y-z:mn:n-U32-n:A1" title="ḫy zmn.n.j" style="border-style: none;" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5243872438572451522" align="bottom"> <img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdOoqvN9SqqWCbCd_UE7kxgbNb4JAEU-9uuw4QZ6x2rPcbmgfAJUW0KXjvoovNr3BOuGkp9lhu-l-5LlQ2zsUsUzJRhcJOoY8RDsEpsxLI6ALiryQpLLhRIT9XUiTmZaevR6R44DDq_0w/s200/gilded-age-xxvii-2.png" alt="wp:p-Z9-n:A1-N31:t*Z1" title="wpi.n.j w3t" style="border-style: none;" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5243872649139726610" align="bottom"></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Egyptian:</i> “Things prepare I. I prepare a road.”<br> <i>Book of the Dead</i>, xliv. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RQE2AQAAMAAJ&pg=PT94#v=onepage&q&f=false">117</a>. 1, 2.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The same <a href="http://home.comcast.net/%7Emmcm/scans/gilded-age/Davis-115_119.jpg">plate</a> and <a href="http://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/servlet/GetTextDetails?tc=15531">TLA</a> section as <a href="#c16">XVI</a>: [1] <i style="font-family: Code2000;">ḫy zmn.n.j</i>; [2] <i style="font-family: Code2000;">wpi.n.j w3t</i>.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><span style="font-family: New Athena Unicode;">ὡς οὖν τὰ πραχθέντ᾽ἔβλεπεν, τυφλὸς γεγώς,<br />οὐ μὴν ὑπέπτηξ᾽ οὐδέν, ἀλλ᾽ εὐκαρδίως<br />βάτον τιν᾽ ἄλλην ἤλατ᾽ εἰς ἀκανθίνην,<br />κἀκ τοῦδ᾽ ἐγένετ᾽ ἐξαῦθις ἐκ τυφλοῦ βλέπων.</span><br> <i>Bishop Butler.</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=dfQSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA251">In Arundines Cami</a>.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Greek (post-classical):</i><br>“And when he saw his eyes were out,<br>With all his might and main,<br>He jumped into <i>another</i> bush,<br>And scratched them in again.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">As
printed in GA, a couple of the Greek acute accents are turned into
grave and a breathing mark is missing. Bishop Butler, S.B. in the
source, is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Butler_%28schoolmaster%29">Samuel Butler</a>, the grandfather of the author of <i>Erewhon</i>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c28"><b>XXVIII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA250">250</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA272">272</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA320">320</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Hvo der vil kjöbe Pölse af Hunden maa give ham Flesk igjen.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Danish proverb:</i> “He who would buy sausage of a dog, must give him bacon in exchange.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The Danish proverb is probably from this <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WWoVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA378&vq=%22Poise+af+Hunden%22">polyglot collection</a>.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—Mit
seinem eignen Verstande wurde Thrasyllus schwerlich durchgekommen seyn.
Aber in solchen Fällen finden seinesgleichen für ihr Geld immer einen
Spitzbuben, der ihnen seinen Kopf leiht; und dann ist es so viel als ob
sie selbst einen hätten.<br> <i>Wieland.</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cjXDEFUTzIMC&pg=PA131&vq=Mit%20seinem%20eignen%20Verstande">Die Abderiten</a>.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>German:</i>
“Thrasyllus, with his unaided intellect, would not have succeeded; but
such worthies can always find rogues who for money will lend brains,
which is just as well as to have brains of their own.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The translation of Wieland may be based on <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=h8gBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA162&vq=Thrasyllus">Christmas</a>'s.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c29"><b>XXIX.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264">264</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA286">286</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA320">320</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—Mihma
hatak ash osh ilhkolit yakni ya̱ hlopullit tʋmaha holihta ʋlhpisa ho̱
kʋshkoa untuklo ho̱ hollissochit holisso afohkit tahli cha.<br> <i>Chosh.</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=M0oTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA52&vq=%229+Mihma%22">18.9</a>.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Choctaw</i>
translation of Joshua xviii. 9: “And the men went and passed through
the land, and described it [by cities, into seven parts] in a book.”</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c30"><b>XXX.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA274">274</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA297">297</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA320">320</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—Gran pensier volgo; e, se tu lui secondi,<br>Seguiranno gli effetti alle speranze:<br>Tessi la tela, ch' io ti mostro ordita,<br>Di cauto vecchio esecutrice ardita.<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=V3wRvmGYXPkC&pg=PA63&vq=%22Gran+pensier%22">Tasso</a>.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Italian:</i> in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=r1AsAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA85&vq=%22I+nurse+a+mighty+project%22">Wiffen's translation</a>: “I nurse a mighty project: the design<br>But needs thy gentle guidance to commend<br>My hopes to sure success; the thread I twine;<br>Weave thou the web, the lively colors blend;<br>What cautious Age begins, let Dauntless Beauty end.”</p><p class="motquote">Bella domna vostre socors<br>M'agra mestier, s'a vos plagues.<br> <i>B. de Ventadour.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Provençal:</i> “Fair lady, your help is needful to me, if you please.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">All the editions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernart_de_Ventadorn">Bernard de Ventadour</a> that I can find, such as this <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=iwstAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA76&dq=%22Bella+domna+vostre+socors%22">collection</a> of troubadour poetry, have <i>bella</i>, not <i>belle</i>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c31"><b>XXXI.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA278">278</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA302">302</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4LgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA320">320</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Deh! ben fôra all' incontro ufficio umano,<br>E ben n'avresti tu gioja e diletto,<br>Se la pietosa tua medica mano<br>Avvicinassi al valoroso petto.<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=V3wRvmGYXPkC&pg=PA112&vq=%22Dch%21+ben%22">Tasso</a>.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Italian:</i> from the <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=r1AsAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA152&vq=%22It+would+be+some+humanity+to+stand%22">c. vi. st. 76</a>:<br>“It would be some humanity to stand<br>His dutiful physician! what delight<br>Would it not be to lay thy healing hand<br>Upon the young man's breast!”<br> <i>Wiffen.</i></p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The GA text prints <i>bed</i> for <i>ben</i>.
There is a lot of variability in 19th century spelling of 16th century
poetry, and some effort is required to find an edition that matches the
four selections as given, but I am pretty sure that this is an error. I
cannot locate any version of Wiffen's translation that has “young man”
and not “brave man” for <i>valoroso</i>, but that may be intentional.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">She, gracious lady, yet no paines did spare<br>To doe him ease, or doe him remedy:<br>Many restoratives of vertues rare<br>And costly cordialles she did apply,<br>To mitigate his stubborne malady.<br> <i>Spenser's</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PGvPLxiWTQkC&pg=PA330&vq=50">Faerie Queene</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c32"><b>XXXII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA288">288</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1">1</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Lo, swiche sleightes and subtiltees<br>In women ben; for ay as besy as bees<br>Ben they us sely men for to deceive,<br>And from a sothe wol they ever weive.<br> <i>Chaucer.</i></p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">This obviously really is Chaucer, from <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=qR1_3YGWLWUC&pg=PA280&dq=%22lo+swiche+sleightes%22">The Squire's Prologue</a>, but I am not sure whose edition. In particular, based on the spelling in the various <a href="http://www.sd-editions.com/AnaServer?Hengwrt+0+start.anv+view=txt&line=L17%203&search=subtiltees#f59841">manuscripts</a>, those that have <i>subtiltees</i> instead of <i>subtilitees</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0EQJAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA2-PA253&dq=subtiltees+wommen">seem</a> to have <i>wommen</i> for <i>women</i>. I am not, however, prepared to say that no such edition exists.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c33"><b>XXXIII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA295">295</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9">9</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA331">331</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—Itancan
Ihduhomni eciyapi, Itancan Tohanokihi-eca eciyapi, Itancan Iapi-waxte
eciyapi, he hunkakewicaye cin etanhan otonwe kin caxtonpi; nakun
Akicita Wicaxta-ceji-skuya, Akicita Anogite, Akicita Taku-kaxta—</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Sioux</i> (<i>Dakota</i>) translation of the <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i>. By-Ends names his distinguished friends, in the City of Fair-Speech:<br>—“My
Lord Turn-about, my Lord Time-server, my Lord Fair-speech, from whose
ancestors the town first took its name; also Mr. Smooth-man, Mr.
Facing-both-ways, Mr. Anything,” etc.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The passage from Riggs's translation of the <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i> is from the same <a href="http://home.comcast.net/%7Emmcm/scans/gilded-age/Riggs-156_157.jpg">page</a> as <a href="#c24">XXIV</a>.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">þe richeste wifmen alle: þat were in londe,<br>and þere hehere monnen dohtere. …<br>þere wes moni pal hende: on faire þā uolke.<br>þar was mochel honde: of manicunnes londe,<br>for ech wende to beon: betere þan oþer.<br> <i>Layamon.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Semi-Saxon:</i><br>“The richest women all—that were in the land,<br>And the higher men's daughters—<br>There was many a rich garment—on the fair folk,<br>There was mickle envy—from [all parts of the country],<br>For each weened to be—better than others.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The first excerpt of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layamon">Laȝamon</a>'s <i>Brut</i> begins <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=JoAlAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA607&vq=%22e+richefte+wifmen+alle%22&dq=%22">here</a> in the 19th century edition (v. 24507) and the second on the next page <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=JoAlAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA608&vq=%22baer+wes+moni+pal+hende%22&dq=%22">here</a> (v. 24531). (In a more modern <a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5198890">edition</a>,
Vol. II, p. 640/641.) The GA text prefers MS Cotton Otho C.xiii,
perhaps because the language is less archaic, except where the Otho
Reviser has cut lines, where they are restored from Cotton Caligula
A.ix, giving a hybrid result.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c34"><b>XXXIV.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA314">314</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA31">31</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA331">331</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Eet Jomfru Haar drager stærkere end ti Par Öxen.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Danish proverb</i>: One hair of a maiden's head pulls stronger than ten yoke of oxen.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Another Danish proverb in the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WWoVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA365&vq=Jomfru">same collection</a>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c35"><b>XXXV.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA320">320</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA38">38</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA331">331</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">“Mi-x-in tzakcaamah, x-in tzakcolobeh chirech nu zaki caam, nu zaki colo. … nu chincu, nu galgab, nu zalmet” …<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3xgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA74&vq=%22Mi-x-in%20tzakcaamah%22">Rabinal-Achi</a>.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Quiché</i> (<i>Guatemalan</i>), from a native drama, published by Brasseur de Bourbourg:<br>“I
have snared and caught him, I have taken and bound him, with my
brilliant snares, with my white noose, with my bracelets of chiseled
gold, with my rings, and with my enchantments.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The GA text prints <i>tzakcolobch</i>; it is possible that this is defective type in the earlier editions, for which I only have scans, but it is definitely a <i>c</i> in modern ones.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Chascus hom a sas palmas deves se meteys viradas.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Old French proverb:</i> Every one has the palms of his hands turned <i>toward himself</i>.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">From Quitard's collection of French proverbs (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=1nsCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA339&vq=%22Chascus+hom%22">339</a>; cf. <a href="#c5">V</a>).</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c36"><b>XXXVI.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA329">329</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA47">47</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA332">332</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">புத்தகங்கள்</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Tamul:</i> “Books.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The Tamil word <i>puttakaṅkaḷ</i> occurs a number of times in the phrase-book suggested above for <a href="#c26">XXVI</a>; for instance, on <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Z8MyAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA36&vq=books">this page</a> (in the “nominative case”).</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">“Bataïnadon nin-masinaiganan, kakina gaie onijishinon.”—<br>“Missawa onijishinig kakina o masinaiganan, kawin gwetch o wabandansinan.”<br> <i>Baraga.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Chippeway:</i> “My books are many and they are all good.”<br>“Although his books are good, he does not much look into them.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Only the second Baraga example appears in the version in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=13JdGipTtI0C&pg=PA283&vq=masinaiganan+books">Google Books</a> (with an added circumflex accent, which is used irregularly to indicate nasalization). Both are in the edition in the <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/theoreticalpract00barauoft">Internet Archive</a> (pp. 394, 393). The GA text adds a third <i>n</i>, in the verb ending, which is emphasized in the paradigm:</p><blockquote><i>Missawa onijishin</i>inig<i> kakina o masinaiganan, kawin gwetch o wabandansinan</i>.<br>Although his books are good, (useful,) he does not much read them, (look into them.)</blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c37"><b>XXXVII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA335">335</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA54">54</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA332">332</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><span style="font-family: Assurbanipal;">𒉌 𒅔 𒀉 𒂵 𒊏 𒀀 𒄩 𒈨𒌍</span></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Assyrian</i> (from Smith's Assurbanipal): “Ni-in-id [dag]-ga ra a-ha-mis,” “We will (help) each other.”<br>[Note. The fourth group varies in different copies of the cuneiform record. Mr. Smith puts <i>dag</i>, marking it as a variant, and translates by “help.” Others may prefer to read <i>gul</i>, “to cheat.” As philological criticism would have been out of place in <i>The Gilded Age</i>, and as the passage is a familiar one, it seemed best to <i>omit</i> the questionable group—leaving it to the reader to fill the blank as in his better judgment he might determine.]</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The GA appendix prints <i>-ni-</i> for <i>-in-</i>. Trumbull's deadpan note plays around with Smith's text (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0cgUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=%22help+each+other%22">p. 25</a>, col. ii, l. 11) and the variant it actually records. The prism A text has <i>ni-in-id-ga-ra</i> and another (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0cgUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA42&vq=%22help+each+other%22">p. 42</a>, K 2675, l. 39) substitutes <i>dag</i> (<span style="font-family: Assurbanipal;">𒁖</span>) for <i>id</i>. Both are writing <i>nimtagara</i> 'let us come to a mutual agreement' phonetically; see <a href="http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/catalog/cad/">CAD</a>, s.v. <b>magāru 5a</b>. (The Prism B version of this passage on the First Egyptian War and the one on the Arabian War in <a href="#c25">XXV</a> are also presented in <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/796509"><i>Beginner's Assyrian</i></a>, an inexpensive reprint of <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8oE_nWJx8FcC">An Assyrian Manual</a></i>.)</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Usa ogn' arte la donna, onde sia cólto<br>Nella sua rete alcun novello amante;<br>Nè con tutti, nè sempre un stesso volto<br>Serba, ma cangia a tempo atti e sembiante.<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=V3wRvmGYXPkC&pg=PA75&vq=%22usa+ogn%22">Tasso</a>.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Italian,</i> from the <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=r1AsAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA100&dq=%22all+arts+the+enchantress+practised%22">c. iv., st. 78</a>:<br>“All arts the enchantress practised to beguile<br> Some new admirer in her well-spread snare;<br>Nor used with all, nor always, the same wile,<br> But shaped to every taste her grace and air.”</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c38"><b>XXXVIII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA340">340</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60">60</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Now this surprising news scaus'd her fall in a trance,<br>Like as she were dead, no limbs she could advance,<br>Then her dear brother came, her from the ground he took<br>And she spake up and said, O my poor heart is broke.<br> <i>The Barnardcastle Tragedy.</i></p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Some of the versions I can find of this
online have “Life” (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=clUJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA14">here</a>)
like the earlier GA edition and others “Like” (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ra8wAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA273">here</a>)
like the later. That second has “caus'd,” not “scaus'd,” as does the
broadside <a href="http://ebba.english.ucsb.edu/ballad/31478/album#">here</a>
from 1718. All have “as if.”</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c39"><b>XXXIX.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA349">349</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA70">70</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA332">332</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"> —Belhs amics, tornatz,<br>Per merce, vas me de cors.<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=5YIGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA119&dq=%22Belhs+amics,+tornatz%22">Alphonse II</a>.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Provençal:</i> Dear friend, return, for pity's sake, to me, at once.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">From the same <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=iwstAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA119&vq=%22Belhs+amics%22">collection</a> of troubadour poetry as suggested for <a href="#c30">XXX</a>.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Ala khambiatü da zure deseiña?<br> Hitz eman zenereitan,<br> Ez behin, bai berritan,<br> Enia zinela.<br> —Ohikua nüzü;<br> Enüzü khambiatü,<br> Bihotzian beinin hartü,<br> Eta zü maithatü.<br> <i>Maitia, nun zira?</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Basque</i> (<i>Souletin</i>
dialect); from a popular song, published by Vallaberry: “You gave me
your word—not once only, twice—that you would be mine. I am the same as
in other times; I have not changed, for I took it to my heart, and I
loved you.”—<i>Chants populaires du pays Basque</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3p4WAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6">pp. 6, 7</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c40"><b>XL.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA355">355</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA77">77</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Open your ears; for which of you will stop<br>The vent of hearing, when loud Rumor speaks?<br>I, from the orient to the drooping west,<br>Making the wind my post-horse, still unfold<br>The acts commenced on this ball of earth:<br>Upon my tongues continual slanders ride;<br>The which in every language I pronounce,<br>Stuffing the ears of men with false reports.<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZXYMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA414&vq=%22Open+your+ears%22">King Henry IV</a>.</i></p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c41"><b>XLI.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA362">362</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA85">85</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA332">332</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">وَزَادَهُ كَلَفاً فِى الحُبِّ أَنْ مَنَعَتْ<br>وَحَبَّ شَيْئاً الَى الانْسَانِ مَا مُنِعَا<br> <i>Táj el-'Aroos</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Arabic:</i><br>“And her denying increased his devotion in love:<br>For lovely, as a thing, to man, is that which is denied him.”<br>From an Arabic poet quoted in the <i>Táj el-'Aroos</i> (of the Seyyid Murtada), which, as everybody knows, is a commentary on the <i>Kámoos</i>—the Arabic “Webster's Unabridged.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The Arabic poem occurs in the تاج العروس من جواهر القاموس <i>Taj al-Arus Min Jawahir al-Qamus</i>, s.v. حبب <i style="font-family: Code2000;">ḥbb</i> 'to love'. The text in the online version <a href="http://islamport.com/w/lqh/Web/1159/381.htm">here</a> and in the <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/alhelawy09">Internet Archive</a> (vol. 2, p. 217, right at the top)</p><blockquote><p>وزَادَهُ كَلَفاً فِي الحُبِّ أَنْ مَنَعَتْ<br>وَحَبَّ شَيْئاً إلى الإِنْسَانِ ما مُنِعَا</p><p><i style="font-family: Code2000;">wa-zāda-hu kalafa fī al-ḥubbi an manaʿat<br>wa-ḥabba šaiʼa ila al-insāni mā muniʿā</i></p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">differs
only slightly in the exact placement of a few vowels and hamzas. I do
not know whether Trumbull found this by browsing through the dictionary
or (as seems more likely) quoted in some bilingual work (which I cannot
locate).</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Egundano yçan daya ni baydienetacoric?<br>Ny amoriac enu mayte, nic hura ecin gayecxi.<br> <i>Bern. d'Echeparre.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Basque.</i> From the <i>Poésies Basques</i> of Bernard d'Echeparre (Bordeaux, 1545), edited by <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WGcCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA57&vq=Egundano">G. Brunet, 1847</a>:<br>“Was there ever any one so unfortunate as I am?<br>She whom I adore does not love me at all, and yet I cannot renounce her.”</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c42"><b>XLII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA372">372</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA96">96</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA333">333</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><i>Subtle.</i> Would I were hang'd then! I'll conform myself.<br><i>Dol.</i> Will you, sir? Do so then, and quickly: swear.<br><i>Sub.</i> What should I swear?<br><i>Dol.</i> To leave your faction, sir,<br> And labour kindly in the common work.<br> <i>Ben Jonson.</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=BGc4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA21&vq=%22Would+I+were+hang%27d%22">The Alchemist</a>.</p><p class="motquote">Eku edue mfine, mfine ata eku: miduehe mfine, mfine itaha.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Efik</i> (or <i>Old Calabar</i>)
proverb: “The rat enters the trap, the trap catches him; if he did not
go into the trap, the trap would not do so.” From R. F. Burton's <i>Wit and Wisdom of West Africa</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VnsQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA367&vq=198">p. 367</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The later GA edition lost a <i>mfine</i> and inserted a spurious comma, the most serious error it introduced. The same proverb can be seen in modern orthography <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RYAOAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Eku+edue+mfine%22&ei=E3PASKqxNYzAzASvnoWGDg&pgis=1">here</a>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c43"><b>XLIII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA390">390</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA117">117</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA333">333</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">“Ikkaké gidiamuttu Wamallitakoanti likissitu anissia ukunnaria ni rubu kurru naussa abbanu aboahüddunnua namonnua.”</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Arrawak</i> version of Acts <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3XcNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA82&vq=23">xix. 23</a>: “And the same time there arose no small stir (Gr. <span style="font-family: New Athena Unicode;">τάραχος οὐκ ὀλίγος</span>) about that way.”</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c44"><b>XLIV.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA396">396</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA124">124</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA333">333</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Capienda rebus in malis præceps via est.<br> <i>Seneca.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Latin</i> (Seneca): “In an evil career a reckless downward course is inevitably taken.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Based on the various manuscripts, the more common modern reading for Seneca's <i>Agamemnon</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=F8MDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA324&vq=rapienda+capienda+%22rebus+in+malis%22">v. 154</a> is <i>Rapienda</i>. Since <i>capio</i> and <i>rapio</i> are mostly synonyms as well as rhymes, this does not much change the sense. But it is the <i>Capienda</i> version that has made it into collections of <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=c3bybjg3bYUC&pg=PA46&vq=429+%22Capienda+rebus+in+malis%22">proverbs</a> and into <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=sKP00-maqFUC&pg=PA340&vq=%22Capienda+rebus+in+malis%22">Montaigne</a> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=C24RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA402&vq=%22Capienda+rebus+in+malis%22">translation</a>).</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Et
enim ipsi se impellunt, ubi semel à ratione discessum est: ipsaque sibi
imbecillitas indulget, in altumque provehitur imprudenter: nec reperit
locum consistendi.<br> <i>Cicero.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Latin</i>
(Cicero): “For men are subject to their own impulses as soon as they
have once parted company with reason; and their very weakness gives way
to itself, incautiously sails into deep water and finds no place of
anchorage.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The earlier GA edition has <i>ipse</i> and <i>provebitur</i>. The later edition corrects this to the above. Now, Cicero actually wrote (<i>Tusc. Disp.,</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xnAfAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA107&vq=%22etenim+ipsae%22">iv, 18 [41]</a>):</p><blockquote>Etenim
ipsæ se impellunt, ubi semel a ratione discessum est, ipsaque sibi
imbecillitas indulget in altumque provehitur imprudens nec reperit
locum consistendi.</blockquote><p class="motcomm">The subject in the original is feminine because it refers to <i>ægritudo autem ceteræque perturbationes</i>
'sorrow and other perturbations'. Based on the translation, it may have
been intentional to make it masculine. Though, as it happens, the same
two changes, that and <i>imprudenter</i> for <i>imprudens</i>, were made in that English <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=C24RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA602&vq=ipsi+imprudenter">translation</a> of Montaigne of a few years before (French <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_vmNNmvnR9IC&pg=PA342&vq=etenim+ipsae+imprudens">original</a>).
That would be an even more likely source for both the mottoes in this
chapter, except that the English translations of the Latin appear to be
original.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c45"><b>XLV.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA404">404</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA133">133</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA333">333</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—Nakila cu ch'y cu yao chike, chi ka togobah cu y vach, x-e u chax-cut?—Utz, chi ka ya puvak chyve, x-e cha-cu ri amag.<br> <i>Popol Vuh.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Quiché</i> (<i>Guatemalan</i>), from the <i>Popol Vuh</i>, or Sacred Book, edited by Brasseur de Bourbourg, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=5EETAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA222&vq=Nakila">p. 222</a>:<br>—“‘What
will you give us, then, if we will take pity on you?’ they said. ‘Ah,
well we will give you silver,’ responded the associate [petitioners].”</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c46"><b>XLVI.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA416">416</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA147">147</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA333">333</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Forte è l'aceto di vin dolce.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Italian proverb:</i> “Strong is the vinegar of sweet wine.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">An Italian proverb from the same <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WWoVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA99&vq=Forte+aceto">polyglot collection</a>.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Ne bið swylc cwénlíc þeáw<br>idese to efnanne,<br>þeáh ðe hió ǽnlícu sý,<br>þætte freoðu-webbe<br>feores onsæce,<br>æfter lig-torne,<br>leófne mannan.<br> <i>Beowulf.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Anglo-Saxon:</i><br>“Such is no feminine usage<br>for a woman to practise,<br>although she be beautiful,—<br>that a peace-weaver<br>machinate to deprive of life,<br>after burning anger,<br>a man beloved.”<br> — Thorpe's Translation, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=V2EQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA130&vq=%22ne+brS+swylc%22">3885-91</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The
printed GA version is missing a couple of the long vowel marks from
Thorpe's transcription. The last line of the translation seems to have
been modernized from Thorpe's “a dear man.”</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c47"><b>XLVII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA426">426</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA158">158</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334">334</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—Mana
qo c'u x-opon-vi ri v'oyeualal, ri v'achihilal! ahcarroc cah, ahcarroc
uleu! la quitzih varal in camel, in zachel varal chuxmut cah, chuxmut
uleu!<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3xgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA116&vq=%22Mana+qo+c%27a%22">Rabinal-Achi</a>.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Quiché</i>
(from a native drama): “My bravery and my power have availed me
nothing! Alas, let heaven and earth hear me! Is it true that I must
die, that I must die here, between earth and sky?”</p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c48"><b>XLVIII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA434">434</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA167">167</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334">334</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—In our werking, nothing us availle;<br>For lost is all our labour and travaille,<br>And all the cost a twenty devil way<br>Is lost also, which we upon it lay.<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=qR1_3YGWLWUC&pg=PA480&vq=%22In+our+werking%22">Chaucer</a>.</i></p><p class="motquote">He moonihoawa ka aie.<br> <i>Hawaiian Proverb.</i></p><p class="mottrans">“A poison-toothed serpent (<i>moonihoawa</i>) is debt.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">This Hawaiian proverb occurs <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=JjcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=%22He+moonihoawa+ka+aie%22">here</a>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c49"><b>XLIX.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA443">443</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA177">177</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334">334</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Солнце заблистало, но не надолго: блеснуло и скрылось.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Russian:</i> “The sun began to shine, but not for a long time; it shone for a moment and disappeared.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The phrase occurs in an English-Russian grammar <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=snQPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA187&vq=%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE">here</a> (the GA text does not include the accents), with the English translation coming from the earlier exercise <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=snQPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA129&vq=%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE">here</a>,
to which that is the key. (The idea evidently is to supply the correct
form of the given verb.) Interestingly, searching for that phrase
online will turn up a Russian <a href="http://lib.ru/INPROZ/MARKTWAIN/gildage.txt_Piece40.20">translation</a> of <i>The Gilded Age</i>, <i>Позолоченный век</i>.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">“Mofère ipa eiye nā.” “Aki ije <i>ofere</i> li obbè.”</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Yoruba proverb:</i> “I <i>almost</i> killed the bird.” “Nobody can make a stew of <i>almost</i>” (or “<i>Almost</i> never made a stew”).— <i>Crowther's</i> Yoruba Proverbs, in Grammar, p. 229.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Crowther's <i><a href="http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/37875067">Grammar</a></i> is not online (or in a nearby library), but the same proverb (less diacritics) is in Burton (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VnsQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA307&vq=429">429</a>), who presumably got it from there.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c50"><b>L.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA453">453</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA188">188</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334">334</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"> Þá eymdir stríða á sorgfullt sinn,<br>og svipur mótgángs um vánga ríða,<br> og bakivendir þér veröldin,<br>og vellyst brosir að þínum qvíða;<br> þeink allt er knöttótt, og hverfast lætr,<br> sá hló í dag er á morgun grætr;<br> Alt jafnar sig!<br> <i>Sigurd Peterson.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Icelandic</i>, from a modern poem:<br>“When anguish wars in thy heavy breast,<br>and adverse scourges lash thy cheeks,<br>and the world turns her back on thee,<br>and pleasure mocketh at thy pain:<br>Think <i>all is round</i> and easily turns;<br>he weeps to-morrow who laughs to-day;<br> Time makes all good.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">This appears to be from an English <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=SwwJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA225&vq=%22pa+eymdir%22">translation</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasmus_Christian_Rask">Rask</a>'s Icelandic grammar. There, the pronoun <i><a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%BE%C3%A9r">þér</a></i> is actually spelled <i>þèr</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pu8IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA273&vq=p%C3%A9r">original</a>). Rask prefers a different accent because the change is <em>before</em> the base vowel; see discussion <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pu8IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9&vq=19">here</a> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=SwwJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA8&vq=19">translation</a>). In addition to just leaving an accent off the<i> e</i>, as mentioned there, the sound might be spelled <i>je</i>.
But the GA text has the modern spelling, and there is never a question
of different accents being interpreted differently. Also, the Swedish
has <i>hnöttótt</i> 'globular'; apparently there was a misprint in Dasent's translation. I suppose that ought to be corrected, too.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c51"><b>LI.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA465">465</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA200">200</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334">334</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Mpethie ou sagor lou nga thia gawantou kone yoboul goube.<br> <i>Wolof Proverb.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Wolof</i> (<i>Senegambian</i>) proverb: “If you go to the sparrows' ball, take with you some ears of corn for them.” R. F. Burton, from Dard's <i>Grammaire Wolofe</i>.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Both <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VnsQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA17&vq=84">Burton</a> and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=XIQBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA138&vq=30">Dard</a> have <i>sagor</i>, not <i>sagar</i>. Based on the dictionaries I can find, <i>sagar</i> means 'rag; bit of cloth' and <i>sagor</i> 'sparrow'.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">“Mitsoda eb volna a' te szolgád, hogy illyen nagy dolgot tselekednék?”<br> <i>Királyok</i> II. K. 8. 13.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Hungarian,</i> from 2 Kings, viii. 13:<br>—“Is thy servant a dog, that he should do this great thing?”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">For <i>Királyok II</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=yNAOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA403&vq=13+Mitsoda">8.13</a>, the GA text is missing the long vowel in <i>tselekednék</i>. In modern grammar and spelling, but still basically <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A1sp%C3%A1r_K%C3%A1roli">Gáspár Károli</a>'s translation, (e.g., <a href="http://www.bibl.u-szeged.hu/Biblia/12.html#8,13">here</a>), this is “<i>Kicsoda a te szolgád, ez az eb, hogy ilyen nagy dolgokat cselekednék?</i>”</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c52"><b>LII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA473">473</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA210">210</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334">334</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Aucune chose au monde et plus noble et plus belle<br>Que la sainte ferveur d'un véritable zèle.<br> <i>Le Tartuffe</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=mDooAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA289&vq=%22Aucune+chose+au+monde%22">a. I, sc. 6</a>.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>French</i> of Molière:<br>“Nothing in the world is more noble and more beautiful<br>Than the holy fervor of true zeal.”—Molière.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The later GA edition consistently has <i>Tartufe</i>.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">With faire discourse the evening so they pas;<br>For that olde man of pleasing wordes had store,<br>And well could file his tongue, as smooth as glas—<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=f849msJW0eEC&pg=PA25-IA5&vq=%22With+faire+discourse%22">Faerie Queene</a>.</i></p><p class="motquote">—Il prit un air bénin et tendre,<br>D'un <i>Laudate Deum</i> leur prêta le bon jour,<br>Puis convia le monde au fraternel amour!<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0zhIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA165&vq=%22Il+prit+un+air%22">Roman du Renard</a> (Prologue).</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>French:</i> [The Fox] “assumed a benign and tender expression,<br>He bade them good day with a <i>Laudate Deum</i>,<br>And invited the whole world to share his brotherly love.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The GA text prints <i>fraternal</i>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c53"><b>LIII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA476">476</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA213">213</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA335">335</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—He seekes, of all his drifte the aymed end:<br>Thereto his subtile engins he does bend,<br>His practick witt and his fayre fylèd tongue,<br>With thousand other sleightes; for well he kend<br>His credit now in doubtful ballaunce hong:<br>For hardly could bee hurt, who was already stong.<br> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=f849msJW0eEC&pg=PA65&vq=%22He+si-ekes%22">Faerie Queene</a>.</i></p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">I am not sure what edition of Spenser this is from, since only a couple of the spellings (<i>tongue</i> for <i>tonge</i>; <i>doubtful</i> for <i>doubtfull</i>) have been modernized.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Selon divers besoins, il est une science<br>D'étendre les liens de notre conscience,<br>Et de rectifier le mal de l'action<br>Avec la pureté de notre intention.<br> <i>Le Tartuffe.</i> a. 4, sc. 5.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>French</i> of Molière: Tartuffe, the hypocrite, is speaking:<br>“According to differing emergencies, there is a science<br>Of stretching the limitations of our conscience,<br>And of compensating the evil of our acts<br>By the purity of our motives.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Molière <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=mDooAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA329&vq=%22Selon+divers+besoins%22">wrote</a> <i>selon</i>, even when it was <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k701569/f95.chemindefer">spelled</a>, “<i>Selon diuers beſoins, il eſt vne Science</i>.” The substitution of <i>selons</i> seems rather prevalent: there are lots of hits in <a href="http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22selons+les%7Cdes%7Cnous%22">Google</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?q=selons+les%7Cdes%7Cnous">Google Books</a>, and even <a href="http://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=selons&so=old">JSTOR</a>; it even <a href="http://www.google.com/search?q=%22selon+les+*+et+selons%22">occurs</a> right next to <i>selon.</i>
A good number are transcriptions of French in English, but some seem to
be native French compositions, suggesting a common typo (or something I
don't understand). It also creeps into later reprints: for instance,
Macaulay <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=wcIuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA386&dq=%22selon+toutes+les+apparences%22">1850</a> vs. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=qA0UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA501&dq=%22selons+toutes+les+apparences%22">1901</a>; and with the same Molière quote, Arnold <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=gM4BAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA403&vq=selon">1862</a> vs. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=51sOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA543&vq=selons">1873</a>. All editions of GA that I have seen have it.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c54"><b>LIV.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484">484</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA222">222</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA335">335</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">भेदस्तमसो ऽष्टविधो मोहस्य च दशविधो महामोहः<br>तामिस्रो ऽष्टादशधा तथा भवत्यन्धतामिस्रः<br> <i>Sánkhya Káriká,</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=NNLyzf70cl8C&pg=PT39">xlviii</a>.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Sanskrit:</i>
“The distinctions of obscurity are eightfold, as are also those of
illusion; extreme illusion is tenfold; gloom is eighteenfold, and so is
utter darkness.”<br>[This description of a New York jury is from Memorial Verses on the Sankya philosophy, translated by <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=NNLyzf70cl8C&pg=PA148&vq=XLVIII">Colebrooke</a>.]</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The later GA edition corrects the chapter number to xlviii. An online transcription is <a href="http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.itx">here</a> and it transliterates:.</p><blockquote><i style="font-family: Code2000;">bhedastamaso.aṣṭavidho mohasya ca daśavidho mahāmohaḥ<br>tāmisro.aṣṭādaśadhā tathā bhavatyandhatāmisraḥ</i></blockquote><blockquote><p class="motquote">Ny
byd ynat nep yr dysc; yr adysco dyn byth ny byd ynat ony byd doethineb
yny callon; yr doethet uyth uo dyn ny byd ynat ony byd dysc gyt ar
doethineb.<br> <i>Cyvreithian Cymru.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Old Welsh:</i>
“Nobody is a judge through learning; although a person may always learn
he will not be a judge unless there be wisdom in his heart; however
wise a person may be, he will not be a judge unless there be learning
with the wisdom.”—<i>Ancient Laws of Wales</i>, ii. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VTVnAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions%3AedhXCLfbrwcC&pg=PA207#v=twopage&q&f=false">207</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The earlier GA edition prints <i>doethinab</i> for the second occurrence.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c55"><b>LV.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA494">494</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA233">233</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA335">335</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">“Dyden i Midten,” sagde Fanden, han sad imellem to Procutorer.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Danish proverb:</i> “Virtue in the middle,” said the Devil, when he sat down between two lawyers.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Another Danish proverb in the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WWoVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA364&vq=Dyden">same collection</a>, with a slightly altered translation.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Eur breûtaer brâz eo! Ha klevet hoc'h eûz-hu hé vreût?</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Breton:</i> “This is a great pleader! Have you heard him plead?”—<i>Legonidec's Descrip. de Braham.</i></p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Of course, <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%E7ois_Le_Gonidec">Le Gonidec</a>
never wrote a description of the novel's fictional “Mr. Braham, the
great criminal lawyer.” But those phrases are taken from his
French-Breton <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=z65vG59zBjQC&pg=PA608&vq=%22grand%20plaideur%22+%22son+plaidoyer%22">dictionary</a>. (Search will not find them; the OCR is not tuned for fine italic type.) <i>Breûtaer</i>, literally 'pleader', is generally 'lawyer'.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c56"><b>LVI.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA503">503</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA244">244</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA335">335</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">—Voyre mais (demandoit Trinquamelle) mon amy, comment procedez vous en action criminelle, la partie coupable prinse <i>flagrante crimine</i>?—Comme vous aultres Messieurs (respondit Bridoye)—</p><p class="mottrans">Old
French: “‘Yea, but,’ asked Trinquamelle, ‘how do you proceed, my
friend, in criminal causes, the culpable and guilty party being taken
and seized upon <i>flagrante crimine</i>?’ ‘Even as your other worships use to do,’ answered (Judge) Bridlegoose.”—<i>Rabelais, Pantagruel,</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OdA6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA716&vq=%22Voire%20mais%22">b. ii., ch. 137</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Again Motteux's <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=agkQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA137&vq=%22Yea,+but%22">translation</a> of Rabelais.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">“Hag eunn drâ-bennâg hoc'h eûz-hu da lavaroud évid hé wennidigez?”</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Breton:</i> “Have you anything to say for her justification?”—<i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=z65vG59zBjQC&pg=PA464&vq=justification">Legonidec</a>.</i></p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c57"><b>LVII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA513">513</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA256">256</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA335">335</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">“Wegotogwen ga-ijiwebadogwen; gonima ta-matchi-inakamigad.”</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Chippeway:</i> “I don't know what may have happened; perhaps we shall hear bad news!” — <i>Baraga.</i></p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">From the same edition of Baraga in the <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/theoreticalpract00barauoft">Internet Archive</a>, p. 398.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c58"><b>LVIII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA521">521</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265">265</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA336">336</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">皁白不分</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Chinese</i> (Canton dialect, <i>Tsow pak păt fun</i>): “Black and white not distinguished,” i. e., Right and wrong not perceived.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">In Jyutping, <i>zou6 baak6 bat1 fan1</i>. From the same Cantonese <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=QwaFAAAAIAAJ&pg=PT27&vq=%22Tsow+pak+pat+fun%22">book</a> as <a href="#c6">VI</a>. (French's note from Trumbull's list seems to confirm this by referring to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Morrison_%28missionary%29">Morrison</a>.) Note that while that was written left-to-right, this is right-to-left. Also found with a more common word for 'black', 黑 <i>hak1</i>.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Papel y tinta y poco justicia.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Spanish proverb</i> (of a court of law): Paper and ink and little justice.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The <a href="https://archive.org/stream/vocabularioderef00corruoft#page/386/mode/1up">proverb</a> is almost certainly, “Papel y tinta y poca justicia.”</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c59"><b>LIX.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA530">530</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA276">276</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA336">336</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Ebok imana ebok ofut idibi.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Efik</i> (<i>Old Calabar</i>) <i>proverb</i>: “One monkey does not like to see another get his belly full.” — <i>Burton's <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VnsQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA334&vq=47">W. African Proverbs</a>.</i></p><p class="motquote"><span style="font-family: New Athena Unicode;">Ὁ καρκίνος ὧδ᾽ ἔφα<br>Χαλᾷ τὸν ὄφιν λαβών·<br>Εὐθὺν χρὴ τὸν ἑταῖρον ἔμμεν,<br>Καὶ μὴ σκολιὰ φρονεῖν.</span></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Grecian.</i> From the <i>Greek Anthology</i>:
“When the Crab caught with his claw the Snake, he reproved him for his
indirect course.” [An old version of what the Pot said to the Kettle.]</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skolion">skolion</a> is printed in GA with one acute accent turned to grave and one grave left out, relative to the text in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=bt1xAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA648&vq=16">Bergk</a>. The version in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8MwPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA90&vq=XIV">Jacobs</a> has an extra <span style="font-family: New Athena Unicode;">δὲ</span> in the first line. A <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Ra6tH_LouwoC&pg=PA294">translation</a> given in Bland's <i>Collections</i> comes from an essay from the Edinburgh Review on “Greek Banquets” (in the <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/edinburghreviewo56macauoft">Internet Archive</a>, p. 372; the essay starts on p. 350) and the tradition in which this poem occurs.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><span style="font-family: Code2000;">Mishittꝏnaeog nꝏwaog<br> ayeuuhkone neen,<br>Nashpe nuskesukqunnonut<br> ho, ho, nunnaumunun.</span></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Massachusetts Indian,</i>
from Eliot's translation of Psalm xxxv. 21: “Yea, they opened their
mouth wide against me, and said, Aha, aha, our eye hath seen it!”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Once again, in addition to Eliot's metrical translation (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:132643:563">EEBO</a>), there is a prose one, which in the 1663 edition (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:132643:267">EEBO</a>) reads:</p><blockquote><span style="font-family: Code2000;">Nux mishittꝏnaéog ayeuukone neen, nꝏwaog, Ho, ho, naumunan nashpe nuskesukqunonat.</span></blockquote><p class="motcomm">and the same in the 1685 edition (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:110460:269">EEBO</a>), except for “<i>Aha, aha</i>” instead of “<i>Ho, ho</i>.”</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c60"><b>LX.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA543">543</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA291">291</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA336">336</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote"><span style="font-family: JG Aksara Jawa;"> </span></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Javanese:</i> “Alas!”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">I am not entirely confident of my abilities with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javanese_script">Javanese script</a> (I used the font from <a href="http://www.geocities.com/jglavy/asian.html">here</a>) or the particular variant used here. But it appears that this says <i style="font-family: Code2000;">aḍoh tĕlah</i><i><span style="font-family: Code2000;">ĕ</span></i>. This is somewhat confirmed by <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=tywOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA137&vq=h%C3%A9las">some</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0GK4R4ZRa5MC&pg=PA192&vq=helaas">books</a> that give the first word as <i style="font-family: Code2000;">aḍuh</i>. A <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=SbiKu52WZr0C&pg=PA25&vq=adhuh">dictionary</a> gives a variant <i style="font-family: Code2000;">adhuh lae</i>, leaving only the <i style="font-family: Code2000;">tĕ</i> unaccounted for. Of course, I have no idea what work this was copied from.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">“Ow holan whath ythew prowte<br> kynthoma ogas marowe”—</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Cornish:</i><br>“My heart yet is proud<br>Though I am nearly dead.”—<i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=P6kNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA132&vq=%22ow+holan%22">The Creation</a>.</i></p></blockquote><p class="mothead"><a name="c61"><b>LXI.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA552">552</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA301">301</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA336">336</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Han ager ikke ilde som veed at vende.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Danish proverb:</i> “He is a good driver who knows how to <i>turn</i>.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Another Danish proverb in the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WWoVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA373&vq=%22Han+ager%22">same collection</a>, with “not bad” adjusted to “good” in the translation.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Wanna unyanpi kta. Niye de kta he?<br> <i>Iapi Oaye</i>, vol. i, no. 7.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Sioux</i> (<i>Dakota</i>): “Let us go now. Will you go?” [The <i>Iapi Oaye</i> is a Dakota newspaper published monthly in the Dakota language.]</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">“School Talk — Wowapi Yawapi Owohdake” <a href="http://reflections.mndigital.org/cdm/ref/collection/p16022coll2/id/11689">p. 4</a>.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c62"><b>LXII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA560">560</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA310">310</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA336">336</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Gedi kanadiben tsannawa.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Kanuri</i> (<i>Borneo</i>): “At the bottom of patience there is heaven.”—<i>R. F. Burton's <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VnsQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA43&vq=7">West African Proverbs</a>.</i></p><p class="motquote">—La xalog, la xamaih mi-x-ul nu qiza u quïal gih, u quïal agab?<br> <i>Rabinal-Achi.</i></p><p class="mottrans"><i>Quiché:</i> “Is it in vain, is it without profit, that I am come here to lose so many days, so many nights?”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Five words are left off the end of the question from <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3xgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA54&vq=La+xalog">Rabinal-Achi</a></i>, “<i>chiri chuxmut cah, chuxmut uleu</i>.” And a corresponding part of the translation omitted, “between heaven and earth (<i>entre le ciel et la terre</i>).” I believe <i>chiri</i> means 'here' (<i>ici</i>), which was not left out of the translation. (The <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3xgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA167">vocabulary</a> in the same book is a bit chaotic, but there is one on the <a href="http://www.famsi.org/mayawriting/dictionary/christenson/index.html">FAMSI</a> site.) The same stock phrase occurs elsewhere (including <a href="#c47">XLVII</a>) with <i>varal</i>, which also seems to mean 'here' (perhaps with some distinction that dictionaries don't make clear).</p><p class="mothead"><a name="c63"><b>LXIII.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA567">567</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA317">317</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA336">336</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">Alaila pomaikai kaua, ola na iwi iloko o ko kaua mau la elemakule.<br> <i>Laieikawai,</i> 9.</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Hawaiian:</i> “Then we two shall be happy, our offspring shall live in the days of our old age.”</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">This quotation occurs in the same Hawaiian <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=JjcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA83&dq=%22Alaila+pomaikai+kaua%22">dictionary</a>
as the previous ones, but since the translation is slightly different,
I'm still not certain this is not Trumbull's source. The entire
Hawaiian Romance of Laieikawai can be found in a later Ethnology Bureau
<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3-ARAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA345&dq=%22Alaila+pomaikai%22">Annual Report</a>.</p><blockquote><p class="motquote" dir="rtl">ܘܢܗܘܐ ܡܒܝܐܢܐ ܠܢܦܫܟܝ܅ ܘܡܬܪܣܝܢܐ ܠܡܕܝܢܬܟܝ܅<br>ܪܥܘܬ܃ܕ܃ܝܗ</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Syriac</i> (from the Old Testament; the blessing on Naomi transferred to Ruth): “And he shall be unto thee a restorer of thy life [<i>consolotor animæ</i>, as Walton translates from the Syriac version,] and a nourisher of thine old age.” Ruth iv. 15.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm">Since <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Walton_%28bishop%29">Walton</a> is mentioned explicitly, I assume the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peshitta">Peshitta</a>
text comes form his Polyglot Bible, a favorite of polyglot scripture
collectors. (Though it is sacrilege to bibliophiles, there are internet
sites that sell single leaves of the Walton Polyglot, making at least a
piece of it affordable.) I don't know whether Trumbull owned a Walton
Polyglot. This line is on vol. I, p. 193 (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:104561:538">EEBO</a>). The Syriac Bible can be found online in <a href="http://cal1.cn.huc.edu/">CAL</a>: both <a href="http://cal1.cn.huc.edu/cgi-bin/newget_a_chapter.cgi?filedata=62030%20P%20Ruth&mychapter=62030%2004%2029519&R1=USyriac">text</a> and grammatical <a href="http://cal1.cn.huc.edu/cgi-bin/analysis.cgi?voffset=62030%2037594">analysis</a>.
The name of book in the GA attribution is printed ܪܕܥܘܬ, probably a
transposition of ܕܪܥܘܬ., that is, with an Aramaic genitive particle,
which is how it appears in a sentence marking the end of Ruth on that
same page.</p><p class="mothead"><a name="ctail"><b>Tail-piece.</b></a> (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PmgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA574">574</a> / <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325">325</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0LcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PT1">337</a>):</p><blockquote><p class="motquote">טוב אחרית דבר מראשיתו</p><p class="mottrans"><i>Hebrew:</i> “The end of a thing is better than the beginning.” Eccles. <a href="http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/c.pl?book=Ecc&chapter=7&verse=8&version=KJV#8">vii. 8</a>.</p></blockquote><p class="motcomm"><i style="font-family: Code2000;">ṭôḇ ’aḥărîṯ dāḇār mērē’šîṯô</i>.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com17tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-55459867554953096532008-04-27T13:44:00.004-05:002008-06-05T21:05:50.086-05:00Sowing Cumin and Basil<p>The American edition of <i><a href="http://www.elwinstreet.com/book.php?id=22">Uglier Than a Monkey’s Armpit</a></i>, co-authored by Steve at <a href="http://www.languagehat.com/archives/002971.php">LanguageHat</a>, still isn't available, as far as I know. But being impatient, I went ahead and got the UK edition when I found a copy here in the States, even though it lacks LH's preface.</p><p>A relevant topic within the scope of this blog takes a little bit of a stretch.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2008/04/sowing-cumin-and-basil.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> has this to say about cumin:</p><blockquote><p style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">Πάντα δὲ πολύκαρπα καὶ πολυβλαστῆ, πολυκαρπότατον δὲ τὸ κύμινον. ἴδιον δὲ καὶ ὂ λέγουσι κατὰ τούτο· φασὶ γὰρ δεῖν καταρᾶσθαί τε καὶ βλασφημεῖν σπείροντας, εἰ μέλλει καλὸν ἔσεσθαι καὶ πολύ. (<i>HP</i>, vii 3 3)</p><p>All have numerous fruits and numerous shoots, but cummin has the most fruits of all. And there is another peculiarity told of this plant: they say that one must curse and abuse it, while sowing, if the crop is to be fair and abundant. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vJZLAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA77&vq=cummin">Hort</a>)</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder">Pliny</a> says much the same thing about basil:</p><blockquote><p>nihil ocimo fecundius. cum maledictis ac probris serendum praecipiunt, ut laetius proveniat; sato pavitur terra. [<i>et</i> cuminum qui serunt,] precantur ne exeat. <i>(NH</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eP3zhUhrtIgC&pg=PA281&dq=ocimo+maledictis+probris">xix 36 = 7</a><i>)</i></p><p>There is no seed more prolific than that of ocimum [basil]; it is generally recommended to sow it with the utterance of curses and imprecations, the result being that it grows all the better for it; the earth, too, is rammed down when it is sown, and [when cumin is sown] prayers offered that the seed may never come up. (tr. after <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=IUoMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA178&vq=ocimum+curses">Bostock and Riley</a>; some codices associate the last sentence with cumin, others do not)</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumin">Cumin</a> is native from the Eastern Mediterranean to India and was cultivated in ancient times. The scientific name, <i>Cuminum cyminum</i>, is as close to a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautonym">tautonym</a> as the rules for plants allow. The Semitic name occurs in Akkadian as <i>kamûnu</i> (written <span style="font-family:Akkadian">𒌑𒁷𒌁𒊬</span> <a href="http://psd.museum.upenn.edu/epsd/epsd/e1589.html"><sup>u<sub>2</sub></sup>gamun<sup>sar</sup></a>), the כַּמֹּן <i>kammon</i> of <a href="http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/c.pl?book=Isa&chapter=28&verse=27&version=KJV#27">Isaiah 28:27</a>.</p><p>Another source of <a href="http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Cumi_cym.html">various</a> <a href="http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Cuminum.html">names</a> for cumin shows up as, for instance, जीर <i>jīra</i>. Both the Wikipedia and this fun <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=MasZUj4G-O0C&pg=PA132&dq=cumin+kerman&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=0T0NSOHCCIzizASGmP2MDA&sig=9nGNmaZ9kulEkBT7pGpE6aVl5a8">book</a> of Persian proverbs mention ریره به کرمان می‌برد <i>zire be kermān mibarad</i> 'carry cumin to Kerman', that is, coals to Newcastle.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil">Basil</a>, <i>Ocimum basilicum</i>, though now considered the essential herb of Southern Italian cuisine, actually is native to India. It is the βασιλικόν 'royal' plant.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch">Plutarch</a> also mentions the belief about sowing cumin:</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">Ἀλλ᾽ ἐὰν τοῦτ᾽, ἔφη, ζητῇς, ὁ Εὐθύδημος αὐτίκα δεήσει σε καὶ περὶ τοῦ σελίνου καὶ περὶ τοῦ κυμίνου διδόναι λόγον, ὥν τὸ μὲν ἐν τῷ βλαστάνειν καταπατοῦντες καὶ συντρίβοντες οἴονται βέλτιον αὐξάνεσθαι, τὸ δὲ καταρώμενοι σπείροισι καὶ λοιδοροῦντες.</span> (<i>Quaestiones Convivales</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=IcMBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA352">vii 2 3</a>)</p><p>But if you have a mind to such questions, Euthydemus will presently desire you to give an account of smallage and cummin; one of the which, if trodden down as it springs, will grow the better, and the other men curse and blaspheme whilst they sow it. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=5lwTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA369&vq=cummin+curse">T. C.</a>)</p></blockquote><p>But <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutilius_Taurus_Aemilianus_Palladius">Palladius</a> applies it to rue:</p><blockquote><p>Hoc mense ruta seritur ... Prosequuntur etiam maledictis et maxime in terra soluti lateris ponunt, quod prodesse certissimum est. (<i>De Re Rustica</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=6eNct9Gs1VIC&pg=PA126&vq=ruta+maledictis">iv 9</a>)</p><p>Is this month rue is sown ... They also attack it with curses and especially they put it in earth with loose brick, which is certain to be beneficial.</p></blockquote><p>These superstitions could not escape the notice of the great students of mythology. So, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Grimm">Grimm</a> cites Pliny in a section on curses (<i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zWQJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1027">xxxviii</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZBwAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1228&vq=cursing">translation</a>). On the spectrum of “may God damn he who ...” to “damn you“ to the interjection <i>Damn!</i> to the intensive “the whole damn ...,” Grimm tends more toward the apotropaic and <i>Uglier than a Monkey's Armpit</i> toward the insulting, though its section on “Ancient Languages” does explain the earlier world, followed by a taste of Latin, Greek and Early English. In any case, it is not always possible to draw a neat line between senses of <i>curse</i>, and both reveal <i>something</i> about the culture that uses them. For instance, Grimm has this Old Norse curse from the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetic_Edda">Poetic Edda</a></i>:</p><blockquote><p>nio röstom er þû skyldir neðar vera,<br>ok vaxi þer â baðmi barr! (<i>Helgaviða Hjörvarðssonar</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=GacrAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA3-PA11">16</a>)</p><p>Nine miles deeper | down mayst thou sink,<br>And a tree grow tall on thy bosom. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UhMeTQ9gzT8C&pg=PA169&sig=2gazTgJzdBCnN0ylbwE0-tAwo4w">Bellows</a>)</p></blockquote><p>And a Middle High German poem by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesinger">Minnesinger</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meister_Rumelant">Master Rumelant</a> containing a meta-curse:</p><blockquote><p>Sô Gelboê der berc von allen touwen verteilet ist, der vluoch dir haften müeze! (<i>Minnesinger Handschriften</i>, vol. 3, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=SnkHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA53">p. 53</a>)</p><p>As Mount Gilboa is condemned of all dew, may that curse stick to you!</p></blockquote><p>The allusion is to David's curse against <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Gilboa">Mount Gilboa</a> in <a href="http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/c.pl?book=2Sa&chapter=1&verse=21&version=KJV#21">2 Samuel 1:21</a>, הָרֵי בַגִּלְבֹּעַ אַל־טַל וְאַל־מָטָר עֲלֵיכֶם <i style="font-family:Code2000">hare baggilboa‘ al-ṭal wal-maṭar ‘aleḵem</i> 'Ye mountains of Gilboa, [let there be] no dew, neither [let there be] rain, upon you'. A similar curse against the land is invoked by Danel in the Ugaritic tablet <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZlqaNOsBFTwC&pg=PA239&vq=19:1:44&sig=tdgkLaO-JAicLGy-jfo3d2S_nKA">KTU 1.19:I:44</a>: <span style="font-family:Code2001">𐎁𐎍𐎟𐎉𐎍𐎟𐎁𐎍𐎗𐎁𐎁</span> <i style="font-family:Code2000">balû ṭalli balû rabibi</i> 'no dew, no rain'. (Transliteration, translation and more discussion <a href="http://ancienthebrewpoetry.typepad.com/ancient_hebrew_poetry/2007/09/the-rider-of-th.html">here</a>; Wyatt's translation and notes <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=m85MB7RkgEIC&pg=PA295&vq=ktu+1.19&dq=ktu+1.19&cad=1_1&sig=_0ZVk2Ot6OEsxRi51OF8NTR3qUQ">here</a>.)</p><p>Getting back to planting herbs, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_George_Frazer">Frazer</a> notices Theophrastus, Plutarch, Pliny and Palladius in a digression on the “Beneficial effect of curses and abuse” in a chapter on magical control of the rain (<i>The Golden Bough : Part 1, The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=fVJD2hn7E54C&pg=PA281&sig=thEiZdZ0N3yr3fBCs-Xxr8igHPQ">i 281</a>). He relates them to later and distant customs, none of which, though, involve growing vegetables.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus">Erasmus</a>, in the entry in his <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adagia">Adages</a></i>, s.v. <i>cumini sector</i> 'cumin-splitter' for one who is very parsimonious, cites Plutarch and sees the superstition as confirmation that this is a negative characterization:</p><blockquote><p>... quod olim ſerebatur a male precantibus, auctore Plutarcho, atque ita felicius provenire creditum eſt. Quo magis quadrat in hos huiuſmodi convicium, qui ob parcimoniam male audiunt. (p. <a href="http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/manuzio/manuzio1/jpg/s0443.html">443</a>)</p><p>According to Plutarch, those who planted this would curse it as they sowed, and this was supposed to improve the germination. This fact makes this type of uncomplimentary saying more appropriate for notorious skinflints. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=6ZmvYg1tVR4C&pg=PA19&vq=cummin&dq=cummin+inauthor:erasmus&lr=&num=100&as_brr=3&source=gbs_search_s&sig=z5wGktsPZcmGoDnTXSIiOM_SqsI">Mynors</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Later editions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giambattista_della_Porta">Giambattista della Porta</a>'s <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Magic">Natural magick</a></i> take note of it in an inventory of tricks for growing fruits and vegetables:</p><blockquote><p><i>Theophraſtus</i> mentions an experiment that is very ſtrange, whereby to make <i>Cumin grow flouriſhingly</i>, and that is curſing and banning of the ſeeds when you ſow them; and <i>Pliny</i> reporteth the ſame out of <i>Theophraſtus</i>. And he reporteth it likewiſe of <i>Baſile</i>, that it will grow more plentifully and better, if it be ſowed with curſing and banning. (Book 3, Chap. XIX of the 1658 English translation: <a href="http://homepages.tscnet.com/omard1/jportac3.html#banning">text</a>, <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:99357:57">EEBO</a>; only earlier shorter editions of the Latin appear to be online)</p></blockquote><p>I suspect that it is also covered by some of the great herbals, though a quick check does not turn up any references. One reason for this is that they, like Dioscorides (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=bUpa6XuMCpwC&pg=PA207&vq=cumin&sig=rWH6K_o2fwNAx9EaeNYuU-CwhTY">III, 59</a>) concentrate more on the magic effects of the herbs themselves than on growing them.</p><p>By the same token, it is in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Heresbach">Conrad Heresbach</a>'s <i>Rei rusticae</i>:</p><blockquote><p>Cuminum, Coriandrum terram poſtulant bene ſubactam cui letamen admiſceatur, ſeruntur verna ſatione, ſata herbis purgeantur. Cumin κύμινον et Graecis alijſque linguis pleriſque vocatum. Maledictis ſeri creditum vt copioſius exeat, & qui ſerunt precentur vt exeat. (Lib. II, <a href="http://fondosdigitales.us.es/books/digitalbook_view?oid_page=337443">p. 102</a>)</p><p>Cummin and Corriander require well ordered ground, they are ſowed in the Spring, and muſt be wel weeded. Cummin is called in Greeke κυμινον, in Latine <i>Cuminum</i>, and almoſt like in all other languages: it is ſowed beſt (as they thinke) with curfyng and execration, that it may proſper the better. (tr. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnabe_Googe">Googe</a> in <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:4163:61">EEBO</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The French idiom <i>semer le basilic</i>, literally 'to sow basil', apparently means 'to rant and rave'. I only qualify this somewhat because I have never seen it actually used in literature (or cinema), only indirectly reported in works on herbs or plant lore, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelo_de_Gubernatis">Angelo de Gubernatis</a>'s <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3nsDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA35&vq=%22semer+le+basilic%22"><i>La mythologie des plantes</i></a> or the <a href="http://www.herbnet.com/BASIL2003.pdf">Herbalpedia</a>.</p><p>A look through 17th century English works finds a number of interrelated similes about sowing cumin and hempseed and/with curses, whose exact sequence of development, if it is more than coincidence, is not entirely clear to me:</p><ul><li>One of the <i>Characters</i> added to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Overbury">Thomas Overbury</a>'s poem “The Wife,” probably by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Webster">John Webster</a>, in the 1616 edition, is:<blockquote><i>A Diuelliſh Uſurer</i><br><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Is</span> ſowed as <i>Cummin</i> or <i>Hemp-ſeede</i>, with curſes; and he thinks he thriues the better. Hee is better read in the <i>Penall Statutes</i>, then the Bible; and his euill Angell perſwades him, hee ſhall ſooner be ſaued by them. (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:23866:90">EEBO</a>; later <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=n78dAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA133&lpg=PA133">edition</a>)</blockquote></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Adams_(playwright)">Thomas Adams</a> <i>The Good Politician Directed</i> (before 1653):<blockquote>What ſhall become of the oppreſſor? No creature in heauen or earth ſhall teſtifie his innocency. But the ſighes, cryes, and grones of vndone parents, of beggard widdowes and Orphanes ſhall witneſſe the contrary. All his money, like Hempe-ſeede, is ſowed with curſes: and euery obligation is written on earth with inke and blood, and in hell with blood and fire. (<i>Works</i>, p. 838, <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:19512:416">EEBO</a>)</blockquote></li><li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=LBFbAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1238&dq=Nathaniel+Hardy">Nathaniel Hardy</a>, <i>Justice triumphing, or, The spoylers spoyled</i> (1648):<blockquote>He ſoweth curſes like hempſeed to make an halter for himſelfe, and all ſuch ſooner or later ſhall have cauſe to ſay — <i>propriis configimur armis</i>, our armes are our harmes, and our own conceptions the death of their parents. (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:65906:12">EEBO</a>)</blockquote></li><li><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2vo7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA778&&dq=Henry+Bold">Henry Bold</a>, <i>Wit a sporting in a pleasant grove of new fancies</i> (1657):<blockquote><i>The Uſurer.</i><br><span style="font-variant:small-caps">He</span> puts forth Money, as the Hangman ſowes,<br>His fatal Hemp-ſeed, that with curſes growes,<br>So growes his damn'd wealth in the Devils name,<br>That doth in hel the Harveſt home proclaim,<br>For which deep reaſon my poor <i>Muſe</i> preferrrs<br>This ſute, that Poets nere prove Vſurers. (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:56340:23">EEBO</a>)</blockquote></li></ul><p>What kind of curses are appropriate? A suggestion is given by Edgar MacCulloch's <i>Guernsey Folk Lore</i> (1903; no preview in Google Books, but complete in the <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/guernseyfolklore00maccuoft">Internet Archive</a>):</p><blockquote><p>In planting a bed of smaller herbs, to render them thoroughly efficacious they should be planted under a volley of minor oaths, such as “goderabetin” or “godzamin.” It is not expedient that the oaths should be too blood curdling. (p. 425)</p></blockquote><p>I can only find those particular words, which show every sign of being euphemisms for something like “god damn it,” in two <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ApUOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA200&vq=goderabetin+OR+godzamin">other</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=zQf3R5vxCoOOywS4r8SWCg&id=VVguAAAAIAAJ&q=goderabetin+OR+godzamin&pgis=1#search">books</a> associated with Guernsey (the second one of which seems, in the snippet available, to be relating just this superstition). The source MacCulloch cites for this is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Métivier">George Métivier</a>, apparently his unfinished (and unpublished?) <i>Souvenirs Historiques de Guernesey et des autres îles de la Manche</i>, but possibly <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/7010443">Dictionnaire franco-normand</a></i>, which has not been scanned yet that I can find. (See <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=GOwFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3&vq="Souvenirs+Historiques+de+Guernesey"">preface</a> to <i>Poësies guernesiaises et françaises</i>, which is in Google Books).</p><p>It is not surprising that this same idea is applied by other cultures, and in other languages, to different plants. For instance, <a href="http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Rodr%C3%ADguez_Mar%C3%ADn">Marín</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/01950849">Más de 21,000 Refranes Castellanos</a></i> contains similar southern Spanish proverbs about garlic:</p><blockquote><p>El ajar, en días nones, y sembrarlo con maldiciones.</p><p style="font-size:smaller">He oído aludir más de una vez a esta vulgar creencia, y sé que la practican algunos hortelanos andaluces. A cada diente de ajo que entierran, sueltan un periquito o un reniego, como si estuviesen muy enfadados contra los ajos, y en eso fían la suerte del ajar. (p. 144)</p><p>The garlic patch, on odd days, and sow it with curses.</p><p style="font-size:smaller">I have heard this common belief alluded to more than once, and I know that some Andalusian growers practice it. Each clove of garlic that they bury, they let go a swear-word ('parakeet') or a curse, as if they were very angry against the garlic, and in that ensure the fortune of the garlic patch.</p><p>Para que salgan buenos tus ajos, con maldiciones has de sembrarlos.</p><p style="font-size:smaller">Ya queda atrás en otra forma: “Los ajos mejores se siembran con maldiciones.” (p. 361)</p><p>For your garlic to come out well, you should plant them with curses.</p><p style="font-size:smaller">Now left behind in another way: “The best garlic are planted with curses.”</p></blockquote><p>If you know of any more, particularly outside Europe, please leave a comment.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-61673297060114037082008-03-23T09:38:00.004-05:002013-10-26T22:16:10.710-05:00Branded Meat Substitutes<p>I have mentioned <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/01/maps.html">before</a>
that I collect vegetarian cookbooks from different times and places and
in different languages. A number of these are from the end of the 19th
century and the beginning of the 20th century, mostly in English with a
few in French. As well as physical books, this subset is augmented by
books scanned into <a href="http://books.google.com/books?q=subject:%22Vegetarian+cookery%22&lr=&as_brr=1">Google Books</a> (though their subject categorization is as sloppy as the rest of their meta-data).</p><p>The
rise, at the end of the 19th century, of food faddism in general, and
vegetarianism in particular, involved an interest in the scientific
planning and production of food. It also coincided with modern
production and brand marketing. This relationship is particularly clear
in the early history of cold <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/11/shredded-wheat.html">breakfast cereal</a>.</p><p>One
result of this is that a number of these cookbooks include recipes
calling for, and advertisements offering, processed vegetarian foods,
particularly protein sources. Some of these are recognizable as brands
in the modern sense, with patented processes and/or trademarked names.
Others are just new names for a public domain process. For instance,
Mrs. Kellogg's <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OjMEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA301">Healthful Cookery</a></i> lists all the Battle Creek Sanitarium products that are called for in the recipes earlier in the book. The British <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eDo993XzWrEC&pg=PP2">Manual of Vegetarian Cookery</a></i> has ads with similar lists.</p><p>The natural question is, what exactly are these products?</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2008/03/branded-meat-substitutes.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._K._Chesterton">G. K. Chesterton</a>, for whom <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodoxy_%28book%29">Orthodoxy</a></i> was quite literally the basis of his creed, was always ready to apply his wit against middle-class non-conformists. His <a href="http://www.cse.dmu.ac.uk/%7Emward/gkc/books/ascetic.txt">poem</a>
about “Higgins the Heathen” wonders why those without faith would
display conventional morality. The coincidence of vegetarianism and
teetotaling led him to <a href="http://www.cse.dmu.ac.uk/%7Emward/gkc/books/vegetarian.html">wonder</a>
why a “Logical Vegetarian” would not drink these pure vegetable drinks.
To be fair, Chesterton, an Anglican who converted to Roman Catholicism
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributist">Distributist</a>, maintained a lifetime friendship with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a>, vegetarian, teetotaler, atheist turned follower of some mystical version of Bergson's <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Evolution_%28book%29">Creative Evolution</a></i> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Society">Fabian</a> Socialist. They engaged in a series of public debates with a civility rarely found today. Chesterton wrote a <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19535">biography</a> of Shaw, whose Introduction consists of this:</p><blockquote><p>Most
people either say that they agree with Bernard Shaw or that they do not
understand him. I am the only person who understands him, and I do not
agree with him.</p></blockquote><p>Shaw himself reviewed the book in the <i>Nation</i> (reprinted in the Sep. 12, 1909 <a href="http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9901E0DE1438E033A25751C1A96F9C946897D6CF">NYT</a>), calling it, “the best work of literary art I have yet provoked,” but substantially disputing its accuracy.</p><p>But this blog is not about religion or politics, so I will stick to the vegetarian angle. In the Dec. 4, 1909 <i>Illustrated London News</i>,
Chesterton wrote an essay titled “Honesty in Vegetarianism” arguing
generally against the idea, joking “I am a vegetarian between meals,”
and specifically against vegetarian dishes modeled after meat ones:</p><blockquote><p>I
will eat nuts with any man—or with any monkey. But they must be
nuts—not nutton, or nutter, or nusco, or nutrogen, or nuttolene, or
nuttose, or nutarian Cashew. (<i>Collected Works</i>, Vol. XXVIII, p. 437)</p></blockquote><p>Obviously,
these are all foods made from nuts. The vegetarian meal that Bloom
recalled, “Why do they call that thing they gave me nutsteak?
Nutarians. Fruitarians.” (8.539 — on vegetarians in turn-of-the-century
Dublin, see <a href="http://comeheretome.com/2013/05/21/some-notes-on-history-of-vegetarianism-in-dublin-pt-i-1866-1922/">here</a>) is more generic; <span style="font-style: italic;">nut-steak</span> warrants an OED subentry. But these <span style="font-style: italic;">nut-</span> terms are specific, even brand names.</p><p>The September, 1904 issue of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset_%28magazine%29">Sunset</a> magazine included the following poem by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Comfort_Mitchell_Young">Ruth Comfort Mitchell</a>:</p><blockquote><p><b>To a Health-Food Girl<br><br></b>Hail to thee, Granola Maid!<br>Kumyss cheek and silken braid,<br>Flower blooming in the shade<br> Of the Protose tree;<br>Pious bearing, modest mien,<br>Hail, my Vegetarian Queen,<br>Hail, my healthy Nuttolene,<br> Zwieback fairy, thee!<br><br>Set my Glutose spirit free,<br>Lift they Meltose eyes to me,<br>Say thou'lt be my Bean Puree,—<br> All my cares beguile;<br>Sway me with they grace imperial,<br>Say thou'lt be my Flaky Cereal,<br>Beam on me, while charms ethereal<br> Sterilize thy smile!<br><br>See, thy Granut tear-drop start!<br>Swear that we will never part,—<br>Give to me thy Whole Wheat heart,<br> Let the skeptics scoff;<br>'Round thy waist my strong arm clinches,—<br>This is where my spirit flinches,<br>For thy waist is forty inches—<br> Let us call it off! (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=GWhpzV9XeQUC&pg=PA489&vq=health-food+girl">p. 489</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Some of these health-foods were imports, rather than new inventions. Kumyss (that is, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumis">kumis</a>) is fermented milk, traditionally mare's milk among the Turkic peoples of the steppes. In Mongolian, it is <span style="font-family: Code2000;">ᠠᠢᠷᠠᠭ <i><a href="http://www.linguamongolia.co.uk/cgi-bin/searchDb3.pl?search_param=airagh&cmdSubmit=Search&langselect=mongolian">airaγ</a></i></span>, apparently from Arabic عرق <i style="font-family: Code2000;">ʿaraq</i> 'sweat', that is, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arak_%28distilled_beverage%29">arak</a>. Tolstoy relied on the “koumiss cure” at various times; for instance, he writes in his <i>Confession</i>:</p><blockquote><p>бросил всё и поехал в степь к башкирам - дышать воздухом, пить кумыс и жить животною жизнью. (<a href="http://tolstoy.niv.ru/tolstoy/religiya/ispoved/ispoved-1.htm">here</a>)</p><p>I
threw in everything and left for the steppes of the Bashkirs to breathe
fresh air, drink koumiss and live a primitive life. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=wbTjn2OZjQ0C&pg=PA28&sig=8mvqLS7umhogrp7HIKcEEffhLmE">Kentish</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Kellogg briefly offered the Sanitarium's own version of kumis, known as <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=W1tLAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1088&dq=Kumyzoon">kumyzoon</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwieback"> Zwieback</a> can usually be found in the cracker aisle of the supermarket. But what of the rest, with newly made-up names?</p><p>To
make some sense of all of these, I have put together a small glossary
of these vegetarian products and the best determination I have been
able to make for what they were made of, how and by whom. A blog post
is not the best medium for this, but it is a decent way to get started.
I fear that just dumping it as a work in progress into Wikipedia would
only invite a mess or deletion.</p><hr><p><a name="albene"><b>albene</b></a>: [< <i>albus</i> 'white'?] A vegetable fat. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=L3QBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=albene">Edinburgh Medical Journal</a></i>. Coconut butter? <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_mkPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA23&vq=albene">A Comprehensive Guide-book to Natural, Hygienic & Humane Diet</a></i>.</p><p><a name="alnut"><b>alnut</b></a>: Some kind of nut meat. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HrxAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA82&dq=nutmeal">Compendium of Food-microscopy</a>.</i> See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="avenola"><b>avenola</b></a>: [<i>< <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avena">avena</a></i> granola] Sanitarium breakfast food made from oats and wheat. <i><a href="http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/books/sciencekitchen/scie.html">Science in the Kitchen</a></i>. See <a href="#granola">granola</a>.</p><p><a name="artox"><b>artox</b></a>:
Whole wheat flour. “so treated that the sharp, irritating particles of
the bran, so prevalent in the ordinary meal, are rendered harmless and
capable of digestion by the weakest stomach.” Cf. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_flour">Graham flour</a>, where different parts of wheat are ground separately. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i></p><p><a name="atole"><b>atole</b></a>: [<i>< <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atole">atole</a></i>] Seasoned dried corn. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8JlXAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA75&vq=atole+penole">Vegetarian Society of America</a>.</p><p><a name="beurreose"><b>beurréose</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=8envR-f-OJG0yQSA5biiCw&id=DVNKAAAAIAAJ&q=%22beurre+de+coco%22&pgis=1#search">Hubert</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="brazose"><b>brazose</b></a>: Nut meat from brazil nuts. Produced by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pitman_Vegetarian_Hotel">Pitman</a> Health Food Company. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eDo993XzWrEC&pg=PP9">A Manual of Vegetarian Cookery</a></i>.</p><p><a name="bromose"><b>bromose</b></a>:<i> </i>Nut meat with malted nuts. Produced by Kellogg's Sanitas Nut Food Company. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HrxAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA82&dq=nutmeal">Compendium of Food-microscopy</a>.</i> “A combination of predigested nuts and cereals.” <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=98AmTp5YPmMC&pg=PA372&dq=bromose">Sanitas ad</a>. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="carnos"><b>carnos</b></a>: Beef extract substitute. Malt extract of barley. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_mkPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA42&vq=carnos">A Comprehensive Guide-book to Natural, Hygienic & Humane Diet</a></i>. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i></p><p><a name="cocoaline"><b>cocoaline</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=8envR-f-OJG0yQSA5biiCw&id=DVNKAAAAIAAJ&q=%22beurre+de+coco%22&pgis=1#search">Hubert</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="cocoine"><b>cocoïne</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=8envR-f-OJG0yQSA5biiCw&id=DVNKAAAAIAAJ&q=%22beurre+de+coco%22&pgis=1#search">Hubert</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="cocolardo"><b>cocolardo</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=rWcmSLvyA4zizATy16HmDw&as_brr=0&id=d7cbAAAAIAAJ&q=%22refined+coconut+oil%22&pgis=1#search">Coconut Research Institute of Ceylon</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="cocoline"><b>cocoline</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=rWcmSLvyA4zizATy16HmDw&as_brr=0&id=d7cbAAAAIAAJ&q=%22refined+coconut+oil%22&pgis=1#search">Coconut Research Institute of Ceylon</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="cocose"><b>cocose</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=8envR-f-OJG0yQSA5biiCw&id=DVNKAAAAIAAJ&q=%22beurre+de+coco%22&pgis=1#search">Hubert</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="cocotree"><b>cocotree</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=8envR-f-OJG0yQSA5biiCw&id=DVNKAAAAIAAJ&q=%22beurre+de+coco%22&pgis=1#search">Hubert</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="diamond_butter_oil"><b>diamond butter oil</b></a>: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottonseed_oil">Cottonseed oil</a>. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8JlXAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PA179&vq=%22diamond+butter+oil%22">Vegetarian Society of America</a>.</p><p><a name="ervalenta"><b>ervalenta</b></a>: [< <i><a href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Ervum%20Lens">Ervum lens</a></i>] Lentil flour. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zfc3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&dq=ervalenta">Pharmaceutical Journal</a></i>.</p><p><a name="fibrose"><b>fibrose</b></a>: Some kind of nut meat. Mapleton's. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i> See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="fromms_extract"><b>Fromm's extract</b></a>: Crushed nuts with cellulose and excess oil removed. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=iqsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195">A System of Diet and Dietetics</a></i>. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8JlXAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA75&vq=%22fromm%27s+extract%22">Vegetarian Society of America</a>.</p><p><a name="fruitosia"><b>fruitosia</b></a>: Nut butter, nut meal and dried fruit. <i><a href="http://www.archive.org/details/guidefornutcooke00lamb">Guide for Nut Cookery</a>.</i></p><p><a name="frutose"><b>frutose</b></a>: Nut butter and fresh fruit (bananas). <i><a href="http://www.archive.org/details/guidefornutcooke00lamb">Guide for Nut Cookery</a>.</i></p><p><a name="glutose"><b>glutose</b></a>: Some kind of syrup?</p><p><a name="gofio"><b>gofio</b></a>: Sanitarium breakfast food made from parched grains. <i><a href="http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/books/sciencekitchen/scie.html">Science in the Kitchen</a></i>. See <a href="#granola">granola</a>.</p><p><a name="granola"><b>granola</b></a>: Kellogg's version of <a href="#granula">granula</a>. Not the same as modern granola.</p><p><a name="granose"><b>granose</b></a>: Graham flour flakes. Kellogg's Corn Flakes before corn.</p><p><a name="granula"><b>granula</b></a>: Granules of Graham flour. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granula">Wikipedia</a>.</p><p><a name="granut"><b>granut</b></a>: =? <a href="#granuto">granuto</a>. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4UkSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA501&dq=granut">The Living Temple</a></i>. “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZIiFvZCgoE4C&pg=PA240&dq=granut">A Vegetarian Menu</a>.”</p><p><a name="granuto"><b>granuto</b></a>: Some kind of Sanitas wheat cereal, “predigested,” so probably porridge-like. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=GCELAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA291&vq=granuto">Healthful Cookery</a></i>. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xIwSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA36&dq=granuto">Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station</a>.</p><p><a name="konut"><b>ko-nut</b></a>: Coconut butter. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="lac_vegetal"><b>lac vegetal</b></a>: Almond milk. <a href="http://www.soyinfocenter.com/HSS/john_kellogg_and_battle_creek_foods.php">Kellogg profile</a>.</p><p><a name="lactine"><b>lactine</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=rWcmSLvyA4zizATy16HmDw&as_brr=0&id=d7cbAAAAIAAJ&q=%22refined+coconut+oil%22&pgis=1#search">Coconut Research Institute of Ceylon</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="ko-nut"><b>ko-nut</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8JlXAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PA169&vq=ko-nut">Vegetarian Society of America</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="kornules"><b>kornules</b></a>: Breakfast cereal. Ixion. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a></i>. <i><a href="http://dl.lib.brown.edu/pdfs/1140813678453685.pdf">The New Age</a></i>.</p><p><a name="kunerol"><b>kunerol</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0oxOAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PA403&vq=kokosnu%C3%9Ffett">Reinhardt</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="laureol"><b>laureol</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=rWcmSLvyA4zizATy16HmDw&as_brr=0&id=d7cbAAAAIAAJ&q=%22refined+coconut+oil%22&pgis=1#search">Coconut Research Institute of Ceylon</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="legumon"><b>legumon</b></a>: [< <i>legume <a href="#nutton">nutton</a></i>] Finely ground peanuts. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt"><i>Reform Cookery Book</i></a><i>. </i>See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="malted_nuts"><b>malted nuts</b></a>: Milk substitute of ground almonds and peanuts in emulsion with malt syrup. Produced by Kellogg's Sanitas Nut Food Company. <a href="http://www.soyinfocenter.com/HSS/john_kellogg_and_battle_creek_foods.php">Kellogg profile</a>. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=iqsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195">A System of Diet and Dietetics</a></i>.</p><p><a name="maltol"><b>maltol</b></a>: Some kind of Sanitarium product with maltose. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4UkSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA552&vq=maltol">The Living Temple</a></i>. Sanitarium <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OjMEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA301&lpg=PA301&dq=maltol">price list</a>.</p><p><a name="marmite"><b>marmite</b></a>: Brewers yeast paste. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marmite">Wikipedia</a>.</p><p><a name="meatose"><b>meatose</b></a>: Some kind of nut meat. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Q_VtdiTVeNMC&pg=PA84&dq=meatose">Good Food</a></i>. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="meltose"><b>meltose</b></a>: Sanitarium's maltose syrup. “malt honey.” <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=CBGxvXF332cC&pg=PA775&vq=meltose">The New Dietetics</a></i>. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=anumfFf93DgC&pg=RA1-PA1581&dq=meltose&ei=FDgnSLHnMo-KzQSXpcyRCw&sig=PJnwVTOe3fPyoJecsvDVu6HNQc0">Home Book of Modern Medicine</a></i>.</p><p><a name="nucoa"><b>nucoa</b></a>: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleomargarine">Oleomargarine</a>. Coconut oil, peanut oil and milk. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cGa1YPpR1nkC&pg=PA97&dq=nucoa+coconut">Congressional Hearing</a>. <a href="http://www.billboardsofthepast.com/Nucoa.htm">Vintage billboards</a>. <a href="http://search.ebay.com/search/search.dll?&satitle=nucoa">eBay</a>.</p><p><a name="nucoline"><b>nucoline</b></a>: [< <i>nux</i> 'nut'] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coconut_butter">Coconut butter</a>. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UONIAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA115&dq=nucoline">Jamaica Dept. of Agriculture</a>. Before hydrogenated vegetable oils, one of the few vegetable oils solid like butter at room temperature. According to <i><a href="http://www.archive.org/details/oilconquestofwor00talbrich">The Oil Conquest of the World</a></i>'s
chapter on margarine, when coconut oil was first sold as
cocoanut-butter, there was the possibility of confusion with
cocoa-butter, that is, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacao_butter">cacao-butter</a>,
a by-product of chocolate manufacture, so Francis H. Loder, son of
Francis W. Loder, of Noder and Nucoline, began insisting that it be
spelled coco-nut and never cocoa-nut. (Of course, this, the modern
spelling, was always an alternative, but somewhat less prevalent at
that time.)</p><p><a name="nusco"><b>nusco</b></a>: Some kind of nut product?</p><p><a name="nutcoa"><b>nutcoa</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8JlXAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PA169&vq=nutcoa">Vegetarian Society of America</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="nut_cero"><b>nut cero</b></a>: Nut meat. Produced by St. Helena Sanitarium Food Company. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=rC5DAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA303&dq=nut-cero">The Home Dietitian</a></i>. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nutcysa"><b>nutcysa</b></a>: Nut meat. Produced by Nashville Sanitarium Food Company. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8vgRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA210-IA1&dq=nutcysa">Internal Medicine</a></i>. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nutarian"><b>nutarian</b></a>: [By analogy with <i>vegetarian</i> and <i>fruitarian</i>] So <i>nutarian lard</i> or <i>nutarian cake</i>.
R. Winter's Nut Butters: Nutarian Almond Margarine, Nutarian Walnut
Margarine, Nutarian Cashew Margarine, Nutarian Table Margarine,
Nutarian Cocoanut Margarine. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i></p><p><a name="nutfoda"><b>nutfoda</b></a>: Nut meat. Produced by Nashville Sanitarium Food Company. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8vgRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA210-IA1&dq=nutfoda">Internal Medicine</a></i>. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nutgrano"><b>nutgrano</b></a>: Grain and nut butter. <i><a href="http://www.archive.org/details/guidefornutcooke00lamb">Guide for Nut Cookery</a>.</i> See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nutmarto"><b>nutmarto</b></a>: Potted paste. Produced by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pitman_Vegetarian_Hotel">Pitman</a> Health Food Company. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eDo993XzWrEC&pg=PP9">A Manual of Vegetarian Cookery</a></i>.</p><p><a name="nutmeal"><b>nutmeal</b></a>: Some kind of savory nut meat. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HrxAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA82&dq=nutmeal"><i>Compendium of Food-microscopy</i></a>. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nutmeat"><b>nutmeat</b></a>: Various kinds of canned nut loaf: ground nuts, nuts proper or peanuts; plus flour, usually wheat. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HrxAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA82&dq=nutmeat">Compendium of Food-microscopy</a></i>. <a href="http://www.vegan-food.net/recipe/1351/Homemade-Nutmeat-Light/">Modern recipe</a>.</p><p><a name="nutmeato"><b>nutmeato</b></a>: Nut butter and corn starch. <i><a href="http://www.archive.org/details/guidefornutcooke00lamb">Guide for Nut Cookery</a>.</i> See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nutmeatose"><b>nutmeatose</b></a>: Some kind of nut meat. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i> <i><a href="http://www.archive.org/details/guidefornutcooke00lamb">Guide for Nut Cookery</a></i>. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nutmese"><b>nutmese</b></a>: Peanuts ground and steamed. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=EJ0UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA174&vq=nutmese">The Laurel Health Cookery</a></i>. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nutora"><b>nutora</b></a>: Steamed nut butter. <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/guidefornutcooke00lamb"><i>Guide for Nut Cookery</i></a>. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nutose"><b>nutose</b></a>: See <a href="#nuttose">nuttose</a>.</p><p><a name="nutrela"><b>nutrela</b></a>: Soy granules, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textured_vegetable_protein">TVP</a>. <a href="http://www.ruchihealth.com/tvp.htm">Modern version</a>.</p><p><a name="nutrex"><b>nutrex</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=rWcmSLvyA4zizATy16HmDw&as_brr=0&id=d7cbAAAAIAAJ&q=%22refined+coconut+oil%22&pgis=1#search">Coconut Research Institute of Ceylon</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="nutrogen"><b>nutrogen</b></a>: Nuts and milk food? <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i> But <a href="http://books.google.com/books?ei=rlcnSK2mC4e0yQSgxKnFCw&id=RW-w8XjFm7MC&q=wintox&pgis=1#search"><i>Food and Feeding in Health and Disease</i></a> says like <a href="#wintox">wintox</a>.</p><p><a name="nutrose"><b>nutrose</b></a>: Nut meat from peanuts. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HrxAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA82&dq=nutmeal"><i>Compendium of Food-microscopy</i></a>. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=6-UfAAAAIAAJ&q=nutrose+peanuts&dq=nutrose+peanuts&ei=ASknSKanNYmUygSY0LzCDQ&pgis=1">Food and the Principles of Dietetics</a></i>. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nuttene"><b>nuttene</b></a>: Nut fat. Chapman's Health Food Stores. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt"><i>Reform Cookery Book</i></a>. Coconut butter?</p><p><a name="nutter"><b>nutter</b></a>: [< <i>nut butter</i>] Usually coconut butter. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="nuttolene"><b>nuttolene</b></a>: Nut meat pâté. Produced by Kellogg's Sanitas Nut Food Company. Peanuts and seasoning. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=h-ZAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA154&dq=protose+nutose+nuttolene">Commerce Dept. ruling</a>. <a href="http://www.soyinfocenter.com/HSS/john_kellogg_and_battle_creek_foods.php">Kellogg profile</a>. <i><a href="http://www.archive.org/details/substitutesforfl00fultrich">Substitutes for Flesh Foods</a></i>. <a href="http://www.goodness.co.uk/cgi-bin/detail/stockcode/484018.html">Modern</a> <a href="http://www.urtekram.dk/produktdetaljer/?tx_ttproducts_pi1%5Bbegin_at%5D=105&tx_ttproducts_pi1%5BbackPID%5D=99&tx_ttproducts_pi1%5Bproduct%5D=193&cHash=f156746e0c">versions</a> are just peanut loaf. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nutton"><b>nutton</b></a>: [< <i>nut mutton</i>] Finely ground blended nuts: almond, cashew, pine kernel, and walnut; no peanuts. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>. </i>See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nuttose"><b>nuttose</b></a>: Veal-like nut meat. Produced by Kellogg's Sanitas Nut Food Company. Peanut paste thickened with a bit of flour. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=h-ZAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA154&dq=protose+nutose+nuttolene">Commerce Dept. ruling</a>. <a href="http://www.soyinfocenter.com/HSS/john_kellogg_and_battle_creek_foods.php">Kellogg profile</a>. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=lCcCAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA7-PA176&lpg=RA7-PA176&dq=sanitas+nuttose">Ad for diabetics</a>. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nutvego"><b>nutvego</b></a>: Some kind of savory nut meat. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i> See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nutvejo"><b>nutvejo</b></a>: Some kind of savory nut meat. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HrxAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA82&dq=nutmeal"><i>Compendium of Food-microscopy</i></a>. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZZXOpVAOOmUC&pg=PA585&dq=nutvejo">Ad</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eDo993XzWrEC&pg=PP8&dq=nutvejo">another</a>. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="nuxo"><b>nuxo</b></a>: Nut gravy. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i></p><p><a name="odin"><b>odin</b></a>: Beef extract substitute. Malt extract of barley. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_mkPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA42&vq=odin">A Comprehensive Guide-book to Natural, Hygienic & Humane Diet</a></i>.</p><p><a name="palmin"><b>palmin</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0oxOAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PA403&vq=kokosnu%C3%9Ffett">Reinhardt</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="penole"><b>penole</b></a>: [< <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinole_%28staple%29">pinole</a></i>] Seasoned dried corn. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8JlXAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA75&vq=atole+penole">Vegetarian Society of America</a>.</p><p><a name="placomeat"><b>placomeat</b></a>: [< <i>place o' meat</i>?] Sandwich biscuits. Produced by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pitman_Vegetarian_Hotel">Pitman</a> Health Food Company. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eDo993XzWrEC&pg=PP9">A Manual of Vegetarian Cookery</a></i>.</p><p><a name="plasmon"><b>plasmon</b></a>: Powdered casein and baking soda. “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8F8BAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA10-PA275&vq=plasmon#PRA10-PA276,M1">Vegetarian Restaurant in London</a>.” <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hhoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA107&vq=plasmon">Failures of Vegetarianism</a></i>.</p><p><a name="protose"><b>protose</b></a>: Beef-like nut meat. Produced by Kellogg's Sanitas Nut Food Company. Peanuts with wheat gluten. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=h-ZAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA154&dq=protose+nutose+nuttolene">Commerce Dept. ruling</a>. <a href="http://www.soyinfocenter.com/HSS/john_kellogg_and_battle_creek_foods.php">Kellogg profile</a>. <a href="http://www.vegan-food.net/recipe/1352/Homemade-Protose/">Modern recipe</a> using other starches. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="provost_nuts"><b>provost nuts</b></a>: Cereal of wheat, barley and malt. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i></p><p><a name="prunus"><b>prunus</b></a>: “The rapid flesh-former.” <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i></p><p><a name="revalenta_arabica"><b>revalenta arabica</b></a>: [< <i><a href="#ervalenta">ervalenta</a></i>] Lentil flour. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=iqsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA196&vq=revalenta+arabica">A System of Diet and Dietetics</a>. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zfc3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&dq=revalenta+arabica">Pharmaceutical Journal</a></i>. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PdgMAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA385&dq=revalenta+arabica">Burton's <i>Pilgrimage</i></a>.</p><p><a name="savita"><b>savita</b></a>: Vegetable bouillon for gravy, made from brewers yeast. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=CBGxvXF332cC&pg=PA190&dq=savita">The New Dietetic</a></i>. See <a href="#marmite">marmite</a>.</p><p><a name="sovex"><b>sovex</b></a>: Paste of soy sauce and brewers yeast. <a href="http://www.betterthangreens.com/Product_378.html">Modern version</a>.</p><p><a name="taline"><b>taline</b></a>: Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=8envR-f-OJG0yQSA5biiCw&id=DVNKAAAAIAAJ&q=%22beurre+de+coco%22&pgis=1#search">Hubert</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="trumese"><b>trumese</b></a>: Wheat gluten and peanuts steamed. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=EJ0UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA154&vq=trumese">The Laurel Health Cookery</a></i>. See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="vegetaline"><b>végétaline</b></a>: 1. karité = <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shea_butter">Shea butter</a>. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=XirkgiNNaXkC&pg=PA476&vq=v%C3%A9g%C3%A9taline">Landor</a>. 2. Coconut butter. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=8envR-f-OJG0yQSA5biiCw&id=DVNKAAAAIAAJ&q=%22beurre+de+coco%22&pgis=1#search">Hubert</a>. See <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>.</p><p><a name="vegex"><b>vegex</b></a>: Vegetable bouillon, made from brewers yeast. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=CBGxvXF332cC&pg=PA190&dq=vegex">The New Dietetic</a></i>. See <a href="#marmite">marmite</a>.</p><p><a name="vegsal"><b>vegsal</b></a>: Vegetable soup. Produced by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pitman_Vegetarian_Hotel">Pitman</a> Health Food Company. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=WI8nSITtHpHcywS39uWLAw&num=100&as_brr=0&id=ISUoAAAAMAAJ&dq=nutmarto&q=asparagus+lentil&pgis=1#search">Ad</a>.</p><p><a name="vegsu"><b>vegsu</b></a>: See <a href="#vejsu">vejsu</a>.</p><p><a name="vejola"><b>vejola</b></a>: Some kind of savory nut meat. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a></i>. Advice for serving <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=LCQAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA675&dq=vejola">The Vegetarian Guest.</a> See <a href="#nutmeat">nutmeat</a>.</p><p><a name="vejos"><b>vejos</b></a>: Vegetable extract. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8JlXAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA75&vq=vejos">Vegetarian Society of America</a>.</p><p><a name="vejsu"><b>vejsu</b></a>: [< <i>vegetable suet</i>] From coconut oil. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UONIAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA115&dq=vejsu">Jamaica Dept. of Agriculture</a>. I suppose the processing must be slightly different from <a href="#nucoline">nucoline</a>; perhaps partial hydrogenation to raise the melting point.</p><p><a name="vigar"><b>vigar</b></a>: Some kind of concentrated vegetable stock? Vigar Brawn, tomato and clear, served cold; Vigar Gravy Essence. Produced by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pitman_Vegetarian_Hotel">Pitman</a> Health Food Company. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>.</i> <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eDo993XzWrEC&pg=PP9">A Manual of Vegetarian Cookery</a></i>.</p><p><a name="vijex"><b>vijex</b></a>: Some Adventist product. Noted in a list of them in <i><a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/451550">American Speech</a></i>.</p><p><a name="wheatena"><b>wheatena</b></a>: Sanitarium breakfast food made from wheat. <i><a href="http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/books/sciencekitchen/scie.html">Science in the Kitchen</a></i>. See <a href="#granola">granola</a>.</p><p><a name="wintox"><b>wintox</b></a>: Vegetarian <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beef_tea">beef tea</a> subtitute, made from malted grain. <i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11067/11067.txt">Reform Cookery Book</a>. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?ei=rlcnSK2mC4e0yQSgxKnFCw&id=RW-w8XjFm7MC&q=wintox&pgis=1#search">Food and Feeding in Health and Disease</a></i>.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-2274319737890814272008-02-29T23:43:00.008-05:002008-04-02T00:21:38.703-05:00Balinese Long Pepper<p>Something new appeared not too long ago in the spice aisle at the supermarket: <a href="http://www.worldpantry.com/cgi-bin/ncommerce3/ProductDisplay?prmenbr=762027&prrfnbr=837991">Balinese Long Pepper</a>.</p><p>Is this the long pepper of ancients, as the box implies?</p><blockquote><p>Once hailed by Romans as the ultimate peppery spice, wild long peppers soon disappeared into culinary obscurity with the agricultural domestication of their cousin, the modern peppercorn.</p></blockquote><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2008/02/balinese-long-pepper.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>The <a href="http://bigtreebali.com/wildcrafted_pepper.htm">product page</a> gives more information on its source and confirms that these are <i>Piper retrofractum</i>. The genus <i>Piper</i> has been and continues to be of enormous economic importance, mostly for spices like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_pepper">black pepper</a>, but also traditional drugs like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betel">betel</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kava">kava</a>. Here is a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(97)00328-2">review</a> of almost 600 bioactive compounds, mostly medicines and pesticides, and which <i>Piper</i> species they were isolated from. The Wikipedia <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_(genus)">Piper</a> page lists <i>retrofractum</i> and it gets a brief mention on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_pepper">Long pepper</a> page. As always, a better inventory of the scientific and common names is given by the <a href="http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Piper.html#retrofractum">M.M.P.N.D.</a> and <a href="http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Pipe_lon.html">Gernot Katzer’s Spice Pages</a>.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> knew both black pepper and long pepper:</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">Τὸ δὴ πέπερι καρπὸς μέν ἐστι διττὸν δὲ αὐτοῦ τὸ γένος· τὸ μὲν γὰρ στρογγύλον ὥσπερ ὄροβος, κέλυφος ἔχον καὶ σάρκα καθάπερ αἱ δαφνίδες, ὑπέρυθρον· τὸ δὲ πρόμηκες μέλαν σπερμάτια μηκωνικὰ ἔχον· ἰσχυρότερον δὲ πολὺ τοῦτο θατέρου· θερμαντικὰ δὲ ἄμφω· δ᾽ ὃ καὶ πρὸς τὸ κώνειον βοηθεῖ ταῦτά τε καὶ ὁ λιβανωτός.</span> (<i>HP</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=EREdkLyXq8MC&pg=PA162&vq=piper">Book IX, Chap. 20, 1</a>)</p><p>Pepper is a fruit, and there are two kinds: one is round like bitter vetch, having a case and flesh like the berries of bay, and it is reddish: the other is elongated and black and has seeds like those of poppy: and this kind is much stronger then the other. Both however are heating: wherefore these, as well as frankincense, are used as antidotes for poisoning by hemlock. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vJZLAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA315&vq=pepper">Hort</a>)</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a> additionally describes white pepper, and begins a confusion that would persist for some time that all three kinds come from the same plant:</p><blockquote><p><b>1.</b> <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">πέπερι δένδρον ἱστορεῖται φυόμενον ἐν Ἰνδίᾳ, καρπὸν δὲ ἀνίησι κατ᾽ ἀρχὰς μὲν προμήκη καθάπερ λοβούς, ὅπερ ἐστὶ τὸ μακρὸν πέπερι, ἔχον τὸ ἐντὸς κέγχρῳ παραπλήσιον, τὸ μελλόν ἔσεσθαι τέλειον πέπερι, ὅπερ κατὰ τοὺς οἰκείους ἀναπλούμενον χρόνους βότρυας ἀνίησι, κόκκους φέροντας οἷον ἐρρυσωμένους, τοὺς δὲ καὶ ὀμφακώδεις, οἵτινές εἰσι τὸ λευκὸν πέπερι, εὐτεθοῦν μάλιστα εἰς τὰ ὀμφαλμικὰ καὶ ἀντιδότους καὶ θηριακὰς δυνάμεις.</span></p><p><b>2.</b> <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἔστι δὲ τὸ μὲν μακρὸν διὰ τὸ ἄωρον ἐπιτηδειότερον εἰς τὰς ἀντιδότους καὶ θηριακὰς δυνάμεις, τὸ δὲ μέλαν δριμύτερον τοῦ λευκοῦ καὶ εὐστομώτερον καὶ μᾶλλον ἀρωματίζον διὰ τὸ εἶναι ὥριμον, εὐχρηστότερόν τε εἰς τὰς ἀρτύσεις, τὸ δὲ λευκὸν ὀμφακίζον, ἀσθενέστερον τῶν προειρημένον. ἐκλέγου δὲ τὸ βαρύτατον καὶ πλῆρες, μέλαν, μὴ σφόδρα ῥυσόν, πρόσφατον καὶ μὴ πιτυρῶδες. εὑρίσκεται δέ τι ἐν τῷ μέλανι ἄτροφον, κεκὸν καὶ κοῦφον, ὃ καλεῖται βρέγμα.</span> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=lRsIAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA159&vq=πέπερι">Book II, Chap. 159, 1-2</a>)</p><p><b>1.</b> The pepper is said to be a tree that grows in India. It produces fruit, which is at first oblong like pods; this is the long pepper, the contents of which nearly resemble millet; it will eventually become mature pepper. Unfolding at the right time, it makes clusters that bear peppercorns like the ones we know; some of them are even like unripe grapes, which are the white pepper, highly useful for eye medications, antidotes, and preparations for poisonous bites.</p><p><b>2.</b> The long pepper, when it is unripe, is more suitable to use in antidotes and for medications against poisonous bites; the black pepper, on the other hand, is sharper than the white, tastier, and more aromatic, because it is ripe. It is also more useful in dressings. The white pepper, being unripe, is weaker than the one mentioned before. Choose that which is very heavy, full, black, not very wrinkled, fresh, and not bran-like. Among the black pepper, one finds something that is devoid of nutritional value, empty, and light. It is called <i>bregma</i>. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=bUpa6XuMCpwC&pg=PA159&vq=pepper&sig=aCTz7I0-IkTiQ7oBZWzR9j0vwAQ">Beck</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Likewise <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder">Pliny</a>, who also notes the relative prices of the three pepper spices and moralizes on their use:</p><blockquote><p><b>26.</b> … Passim vero quæ piper gignunt junipiris nostris similes, quanquam in fronte Caucasi solibus opposita gigni tantum eas aliqui tradidere. Semina a junipiro distant parvulis siliquis, quales in faseolis videmus. Hæ, priusquam dehiscant decerptæ tostæque Sole, faciunt quod vocatur piper longum: paulatim vero dehiscentes maturitate, ostendunt candidum piper, quod deinde tostum Solibus colore rugisque mutatur.</p><p><b>27.</b> Verum et iis sua injuria est, atque cœli intemperie carbunculantur, fiuntque semina cassa et inania, quod vocant brecma, sic Indorum lingua significante mortuum. Hoc ex omni genere asperrimum est, levissimumque, et pallidum. Gratius nigrum: lenius utroque candidum.</p><p><b>28.</b> Non est hujus arboris radix, ut aliqui existimavere, quod vocant zingiberi, alii vero zimpiberi, quanquam sapore simili. Id enim in Arabia atque Trogodytica in villis nascitur, parvæ herbæ, radice candida. Celeriter ea cariem sentit, quamvis in tanta amaritudine. Pretium ejus in libras VI. Piper longum facillime adulteratur Alexandrino sinapi. Emitur in libras X. XV. Album X. VII. nigrum X. IV.</p><p><b>29.</b> Usum ejus adeo placuisse mirum est. In aliis quippe suavitas cepit, in aliis species invitavit: huic nec pomi nec bacæ commendatio est aliqua: sola placere amaritudine, et hanc in Indos peti. Quis ille primus experiri cibis voluit? aut cui in appetenda aviditate esurire non fuit satis? Utrumque silvestre gentibus suis est et tamen pondere emitur ut aurum vel argentum. … (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Gt4AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2189&vq=piper+longum">Book XII, Chap. 14 / 7</a>)</p><p><b>26.</b> … In every part we meet with trees that bear pepper, very similar in appearance to our junipers, although, indeed, it has been alleged by some authors that they only grow on the slopes of Caucasus which lie exposed to the sun. The seeds, however, differ from those of the juniper, in being enclosed in small pods similar to those which we see in the kidney-bean. These pods are picked before they open, and when dried in the sun, make what we call “long pepper.” But if allowed to ripen, they will open gradually, and when arrived at maturity, discover the white pepper; if left exposed to the heat of the sun, this becomes wrinkled, and changes its colour.</p><p><b>27.</b> Even these productions, however, are subject to their own peculiar infirmities, and are apt to become blasted by the inclemency of the weather; in which case the seeds are found to be rotten, and mere husks. These abortive seeds are known by the name of “bregma,” a word which in the Indian language signifies “dead.” Of all the various kinds of pepper, this is the most pungent, as well as the very lightest, and is remarkable for the extreme paleness of its colour. That which is black is of a more agreeable flavour; but the white pepper is of a milder quality than either.</p><p><b>28.</b> The root of this tree is not, as many persons have imagined, the same as the substance known as zimpiberi, or, as some call it, zingiberi, or ginger, although it is very like it in taste. For ginger, in fact, grows in Arabia and in Troglodytica, in various cultivated spots, being a small plant with a white root. This plant is apt to decay very speedily, although it is of intense pungency; the price at which it sells is six denarii per pound. Long pepper is very easily adulterated with Alexandrian mustard; its price is fifteen denarii per pound, while that of white pepper is seven, and of black, four.</p><p><b>29.</b> It is quite surprising that the use of pepper has come so much into fashion, seeing that in other substances which we use, it is sometimes their sweetness, and sometimes their appearance that has attracted our notice; whereas, pepper has nothing in it that can plead as a recommendation to either fruit or berry, its only desirable quality being a certain pungency; and yet it is for this that we import it all the way from India! Who was the first to make trial of it as an article of food? and who, I wonder, was the man that was not content to prepare himself by hunger only for the satisfying of a greedy appetite? Both pepper and ginger grow wild in their respective countries, and yet here we buy them by weight--just as if they were so much gold or silver. … (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=A0EMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA111&vq=long+pepper">Bostock & Riley</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The word for pepper in many European languages is derived from Latin <i>piper</i> or Greek πέπερι. For example, French <i>poivre</i>, German <i>Pfeffer</i>, Russian пе́рец (explanations of that derivation by <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=V1bCm-E251MC&pg=PA187&vq=perets+pepper&dq=perets+pepper&sig=bPMtpraEkf7N9T2TVqZK9L4YVOQ">Aronson</a> and <a href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=config&basename=\data\ie\vasmer&first=1&text_word=%D0%BF%D0%B5%CC%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86,">Vasmer</a>). For <i>P. longum</i> a qualified form based on its size is used, like <i>long pepper</i>; and for <i>P. retrofractum</i> a further geographical qualification like <i>Javanese long pepper</i>. (Russian, which has длинный перец 'long pepper' and яванский перец 'Javanese pepper', also has колосковый перец 'spike pepper', which Gernot Katzer's Spice Page lists for <i>P. officinarum</i>, now a synonym of <i>P. retrofractum</i>. Also see comments.) In some languages like English, <i>pepper</i> is also used for the unrelated <a href="/2007/04/chili-part-i.html">chili pepper</a>.</p><p>After quoting the passage given above from Theophrastus, Athenaeus' <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deipnosophists">Deipnosophists</a></i> deduces that πέπερι must be a foreign word:</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">τοῦτο δ᾽ ἡμᾶς τηρῆσαι δεῖ, ὅτι οὐδέτερον ὄνομα οὐδέν ἐστι παρὰ τοῖς Ἕλλησιν εἰς ι λῆγον εἰ μὴ μόνον τὸ μέλι. τὸ γὰρ πέπερι καὶ κόμμι και κοῖφι ζενικά.</span> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=QGMNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA152">Book II, Chap. 73</a>)</p><p>But we must recollect that, properly speaking, there is no noun of the neuter gender among the Greeks ending in ι, except μέλι alone; for the words πέπερι, and κόμμι, and κοῖφι are foreign. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=A0_lgVLT0lsC&pg=PA110">Yonge</a>)</p></blockquote><p>(μέλι 'honey', κόμμι 'gum', κοῖφι 'incense' (< Egyptian <i><a href="http://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/servlet/GetWcnDetails?wn=163400">k3p.t</a></i>). An <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldine_Press">Aldine Press</a> edition of the <i>Deipnosophistarum</i> is <a href="http://swanngalleries.rfcsystems.com/asp/fullCatalogue.asp?salelot=2140+++++++6+&refno=++592249&saletype=">included</a> in the Swann sale early next month, but the combination of gastronomic and gay interest drives the price pretty high.)</p><p>The source is an Indian word for 'long pepper', such as Sanskrit पिप्पलि <i>pippali</i> / पिप्पली <i>pippalī</i>. The latter version occurs in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atharvaveda"><i>Atharvaveda</i></a>, the earliest text dealing with Indian medicine, as some kind of berry, possibly the pepper-corn:</p><blockquote><p>पिप्पली क्षिप्तभेषज्य उतातिविद्धभेषजी ।<br>तां देवाः सम अकल्पयन्न इयं जीवितवा अलम ॥१॥</p><p style="font-family:Code2000">pippalī kṣiptabheṣajy utātividdhabheṣajī |<br>tāṃ devāḥ sam akalpayann iyaṃ jīvitavā alam ||1|| (<a href="http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/ind/aind/ved/av/avs/avs282.htm#AV_ŚS_6_109">Book VI, Chap. 109</a>)</p><p align="left">1. The pepper-corn cures the wounds that have been struck by missiles, it also cures the wounds from stabs. … (tr. <a href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe42/av033.htm">Bloomfield</a>)</p><p align="left">1. The berry, remedy for what is bruised, and remedy for what is pierced — … (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=n44iAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA9-PA359&vq=pippali">Whitney</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Unicode does not do a complete enough job of encoding <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_accent">Vedic accent</a> yet. For those with the <a href="http://www.omkarananda-ashram.org/Sanskrit/itranslator2003.htm">Sanskrit 2003</a> font installed, which uses Private Use Characters, here it is again:</p><blockquote><p style="font-family:Sanskrit 2003">पि॒प्प॒ली क्षि॑प्तभेष॒ज्यु॒३ताति॑विद्धभेष॒जी ।<br>तां दे॒वाः स॑मकल्पयन्नि॒यं जीवि॑त॒वा अल॑म् ॥१॥</p><p style="font-family:Code2000">pippalī́ kṣiptabheṣajy ùtā́tividdhabheṣajī |<br>tā́ṃ devā́ḥ sám akalpayann iyáṃ jī́vitavā́ álam ||1||</p></blockquote><p>Its use is also described in the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita">Suśruta Samhita</a></i>, an important work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurvedic_medicine">Ayurvedic medicine</a>:</p><blockquote><p>तेषां गुर्वी स्वाटुशीता पिप्पल्यार्द्रा कफावहा ॥<br>शुष्का कफानिलघ्नी सा वृष्य पित्ताविरोधिनी ॥२२३॥ (Sūtra-sthāna, Chap. XLVI)</p><p style="font-family:Code2000">teṣāṃ gurvī svāṭuśītā pippalyārdrā kaphāvahā<br>śuṣkā kaphānilaghnī sā vṛṣya pittāvirodhinī</p><p>Of them, fresh long pepper is heavy, spicy and cold, and causes phlegm;<br>Dry removes phlegm, it is an aphrodisiac, and dispels bile.</p></blockquote><p>An Ayurvedic cure-all is त्रिकटु <i style="font-family:Code2000">trikaṭu</i> 'three pungents', a equal mixture of पिप्पली <i style="font-family:Code2000">pippalī</i> 'long pepper', मरिच <i style="font-family:Code2000">marica</i> 'black pepper' and शुण्ठी <i style="font-family:Code2000">śuṇṭhi</i> 'dried ginger'.</p><p>Since a word for long pepper was borrowed, it is supposed that this was the first kind of pepper traded and so the first known to Europe. The same word is borrowed into Persian: فلفل <i>filfil</i> 'pepper', دار فلفل <i>dār-filfil</i> 'long (lit. wood) pepper'; and these into Arabic. There is an entry on long pepper in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Muwaffak">Al-Muwaffak</a>'s كتاب الأبنية عن حقائق الأدوية <i style="font-family:Code2000">Kitāb al-abniyah ʻan ḥaqāʼiq al-adwiyah</i> 'Book of the foundations of the realities of remedies', the first Persian materia medica, but this seems to only be online in the German <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4osIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&vq=piper">translation</a>. The critical edition of the original is <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pk0JAAAAIAAJ">snippets</a>, which is confusing because it was published in 1859 and useless, since Google Books does not do OCR of Arabic script.</p><p>And into Chinese. Many terms for pepper involve 椒 <i>jiao1</i>, originally some sort of native Chinese pepper plant: 秦椒 or 蓁椒 <i>qin2jiao1</i> 'Chinese pepper', 花椒 <i>hua1jiao1</i> 'flower pepper', 山椒 <i>shan1jiao1</i> 'mountain pepper' and 蜀椒 <i>shu3jiao1</i> or 川椒 <i>chuan1jiao1</i> 'Szechuan pepper' are varieties of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sichuan_pepper">Chinese or Szechuan pepper</a>. 胡椒 <i>hu2jiao1</i>, black pepper, and 番椒 <i>fan1jiao1</i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsicum_annuum">Capsicum annuum</a> (hot or not), both literally mean 'foreign pepper', 胡 <i>hu2</i> being a foreigner from the North and 番 <i>fan1</i> a foreigner from the South, such as the Malay archipelago. Along these lines, 長椒 <i>chang2jiao1</i> is literally 'long pepper'. But long pepper is also known as 蓽撥 <i>bi4bo1</i> (simplified 荜拨), particularly in materia medica; this is also spelled 蓽茇 <i>bi4ba2</i>. The <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bencao_Gangmu">Bencao Gangmu</a></i> <a href="http://herb.asia.edu.tw/tcmcenter_c/paper1/list.asp?id=92">entry</a> for 蓽茇 <i>bi4ba2</i> additionally lists 畢勃 <i>bi4bo2</i>, all of which suggests that the word is borrowed. And in fact, the entry says that in the language of 摩伽陀 <i>mo2jia1tuo2</i> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magadha">Māgadha</a>; in other words, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magadhi_Prakrit">Māgadhī Prākrit</a>), it is called 蓽撥梨 <i>bi4bo1li2</i>. Which is to say, पिप्पली <i>pippalī</i>. (At least in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali">Pāli</a>, this is <i>pipphalī</i>, with unetymological aspiration, which Geiger says is not rare: the word occurs, for instance, in the “Godha-Jātaka” 'Iguana Birth-Story', where the future Buddha has been reborn as a lizard and meets a wicked ascetic who has developed a taste for lizard meat, which he means to so season; <a href="http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil/2_pali/1_tipit/2_sut/5_khudd/jataka3u.htm">text</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=1H_85d2EEQcC&pg=PA57&vq=pepper&sig=CZha4YeZ6g4AeBz86a2saFcAi2M">translation</a>.) It also says that in 拂林 <i>fu2lin2</i> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople">Constantinople</a>), it is called 阿梨訶陀 <i>a1li2he1tou2</i>. The entry further mentions the derivative medicine 蓽勃沒 <i>bi4bo2mo4</i>, which is presumably पिप्पलीमूल <i>pippalī-mūla</i>, literally 'long pepper root'.</p><p>It is hard to overestimate the importance of spices, and pepper in particular, in long-distance trade, exploration, and imperialism. So <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persius">Persius</a>:</p><blockquote><p>Mercibus hic Italis mutat, sub sole recenti,<br>Rugosum piper, et pallentis grana cumini: <i>(Sat</i>. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=dusNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA290&vq=piper">V, 55-56</a>)</p><p>The greedy merchants, led by lucre, run<br>To the parch'd Indies, and the rising sun;<br>From thence hot pepper and rich drugs they bear,<br>Bart'ring for spices their Italian ware; (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Roc6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA374&vq=pepper">Dryden</a>)</p></blockquote><p>In Sanskrit, यवनप्रिय <i style="font-family:Code2000">yavanapriya</i> 'dear to Yavanas (literally, Ionians, that is, Greeks, that is, Western foreigners)' refers to pepper and यवनेष्ट <i style="font-family:Code2000">yavaneṣṭa</i> 'liked by Yavanas' to onion, garlic, neem and lead as well as pepper. In the sense of pepper, the latter appears in Tamil as இவனட்டம் <i style="font-family:Code2000">ivaṉaṭṭam</i>. The <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea">Periplus of the Erythrean Sea</a></i>, from the mid 1st century, lists long pepper among the products available from northwest India around <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barygaza">Barygaza</a> (Βαρύγαζα; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=tPU9AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA293&vq=piper+longum">49, 16</a>; sort-of <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=U7wBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA372&vq=long+pepper&dq=inauthor:William+inauthor:Vincent&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_search_s">translation</a>) and black pepper from southwest in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muziris">Muziris</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niranam">Nelcynda</a> (Μουζιρίς / Νέλκυνδα; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=tPU9AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA298&vq=peperi">56, 18</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=U7wBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA415&vq=pepper">translation</a>). A poem in the Tamil <i style="font-family:Code2000"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akananuru">Akanāṉūṟu</a></i> of about the same time describes the vessels of the Yavanas (யவனர் <i style="font-family:Code2000">yavaṉar</i>) in Muziris (முசிறி <i style="font-family:Code2000">muciṟi</i>), “பொன்னொடு வந்து கறியொடு பெயரும் <i style="font-family:Code2000">poṉṉoṭu vantu kaṟiyoṭu peyarum</i> 'arriving with gold, returning with pepper'” (<a href="http://www.tamilnation.org/literature/ettuthokai/mp229.htm">149, 10</a>; a similar image is in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purananuru">புறநானூறு <i style="font-family:Code2000">Puṟanāṉūṟu</i></a> <a href="http://www.tamilnation.org/literature/ettuthokai/mp057.htm">343, 3-5</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cI3osJ5Pz8MC&pg=RA2-PA354&vq=pepper&sig=aa7GII-UYGtgQP7wC3wfjzgHFoY">translation</a>).</p><p>When <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> arrived in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calicut">Calicut</a> on May 20, 1498, he sent ashore one of the recently converted convicts brought for that purpose, who being asked by some Moors why they had come so far, responded, “<i>Vimos buscar cristãos e especiaria</i> 'we came in search of Christians and spice'.” (<i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VPkqAAAAIAAJ&q=longe+buscar&dq=inauthor:vasco+inauthor:da+inauthor:gama&lr=&num=100&as_brr=0&source=gbs_book_other_versions_r&cad=1_2&pgis=1">Diário</a></i>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=13stAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA48&vq=spices">translation</a>; the conversation supposedly actually took place in Castilian; strangely enough, a number of works related to perfume <a href="http://books.google.com/books?q=christos+e+espiciarias">report</a> that da Gama's men called out “Christos e espiciarias” in the sense of 'for Christ and spices', but that seems suspect to me). Later, when it was time for a hasty departure before the regular arrival of some Arab ships that posed a threat, he makes sure to take some pepper. According to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam%C3%B5es">Camões</a>' <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os_Lus%C3%ADadas">Os_Lusíadas</a></i>:</p><blockquote><p>Leva alguns Malabares, que tomou<br>Por força, dos que o Samorim mandara<br>Quando os presos feitores lhe tornou;<br>Leva pimenta ardente, que comprara;<br>A seca flor de Banda não ficou,<br>A noz, e o negro cravo, que faz clara<br>A nova ilha Maluco, com a canela,<br>Com que Ceilão é rica, ilustre e bela. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ct8IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA152&vq=pimenta">Canto IX, 14</a>)</p><p>He taketh eke some Malabars aboard<br> parforce, the fellows by the Samorim sent<br> when were the Factor-pris'oners restor'd:<br> Of purchased stores he taketh hot piment:<br> Nor is of Banda the dried flow'er ignor'd,<br> nutmeg and swarthy clove, which excellent<br>makes New Malucan Isle, with cinnamon<br>the wealth, the boast, the beauty of Ceylon. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Ln4NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA331&vq=piment">Burton</a>)</p></blockquote><p>On Jan. 28, 1793, Britain entered into a “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2MwNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA120">Pepper Contract</a>” with the Rajah of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travancore">Travancore</a>, which mostly amounted to a regular trade of pepper for guns and ammunition.</p><p>With exploration came greater knowledge of the pepper plants themselves. In 522, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmas_Indicopleustes">Cosmas Indicopleustes</a> visited the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabar_Coast">Malabar Coast</a>. (Overzealous linking in Wikipedia had confused Cosmas' calling <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabar">Malabar</a> <i>Male</i> with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C3%A9">Malé</a> in the Maldives.) He writes:</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">Τοῦτο τὸ δένδρον ἐστὶ τὸ τοῦ πιπέρεως·<br>ἕκαστον δὲ δένδρον ἑτέρῳ ὑψηλῷ ἀκάρπῳ δένδρῳ ἀνακλᾶται διὰ τὸ λεπτὸν εἶναι πάνυ καὶ ἀσθενές, ὥσπερ καὶ τὰ κλήματα τῆς ἀμπέλου λεπτά·<br>ἕκαστος δὲ βότρυς δίφυλλον ἔχει σκέπον· <br>χλωρὸν δὲ πάνυ ἐστίν, ὥσπερ ἡ χρόα τοῦ πηγάνου.</span> (<i><a href="http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/02g/0500-0600,_Cosmas_Indicopleustis,_Topographia_Christiana,_MGR.pdf">Topographia Christiana</a>,</i> 11, 10)</p><p>This is a <a href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/cosmas13-plate4.gif">picture</a> of the tree which produces pepper. Each separate stem being very weak and limp twines itself, like the slender tendrils of the vine, around some lofty tree which bears no fruit. And every cluster of the fruit is protected by a double leaf. It is of a deep green colour like that of rue. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RD8MAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA362&vq=pepper">McCrindle</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The work of a 10th century herbalist who wrote under the name of Macer Floridus published as <i>De viribus herbarum</i> in 1477 continues to recognize three kinds:</p><blockquote><p>Virtutis siccæ piper asseritur calidæque,<br>Tertius esse gradus conceditur huic in utroque.<br>Tres sunt huic species : album, longumque, nigrumque; (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k592163/f82.item">1477 edition</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_FgcW99HMk4C&pg=RA1-PA244">later</a> with more legible scan)</p><p>Pepper claims dry and hot virtue,<br>It is accepted to be both of the third degree in both these.<br>There are three kinds: white, long and black;</p></blockquote><p>The Anglo-Saxon medical text known as <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bald%27s_Leechbook">Bald's Leechbook</a></i> includes a remedy with both pepper and long pepper, indicating how broad the trade was in Europe:</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-family:Junicode;">ı ſcal ƿıð aaoum maan · ním hunı ⁊ c oæ mn ⁊ bann pıpo l ón monn cucl uln nahnıum nyı ſcapa ıncna· ⁊ ma· ⁊ æ baþ mı</span><span style="font-family:Junicode"> ſınop nı ⁊ mƿ. l hím ác nahnıum þı · nım c ƿıþ lænan mn hƿæthƿa ⁊ lan pıpo .x. con oþþ coppan ⁊ ſnp mn all oæ · ⁊ ıolı l nıhnſıum an cucl mæl · þnc ðu þonn hƿæþn  all þa æ nmnan læcoma ⁊ þa æ ƿınan n ſculon ón an þa o lan bón o on ác ſculon æc habban bonum ⁊ ſ · hƿılum n aaſ hƿılum ƿy · ⁊ þonn hım món blo læ ón æ ón þam aúm n o hím mon nann oþn læcóm o · nymþ ymb .v. nıh oþþ ma.</span> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Z08JAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA186">Book II, Chap. 7</a>; I am using the <a href="http://junicode.sourceforge.net/">Junicode</a> font for the <a href="http://www.mufi.info/">MUFI</a> PUA, even though its philosophy is somewhat un-Unicode)</p><p>This shall apply for a deadened maw; take some honey and vinegar mingled together, and pepper beaten up, give in the morning a spoon full <i>of it</i> to the man after his nights fast, let him employ sharp drinks and meats; and at the bath let him rub and smear himself with mustard. Give him also, after his nights fast, this: take vinegar mingled with somewhat of gladden, and of long pepper ten corns or clusters, and mustard; mingle all together, and triturate; give him after a nights fasting, one spoon measure. Then consider thou, notwithstanding, that all the aforenamed leechdoms and the after written ones, shall not be to be done at one too long season, but must have space and rest between them, whilom two days, whilom three; and when one lets him blood on a vein, on those days let none other leechdom be done to him, except about five days <i>later</i> or more. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Z08JAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA187&vq=long+pepper">Cockayne</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Simon Januensis, a lexicographer and court physician to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_IV">Nicholas IV</a>, wrote a dictionary of medicine titled <i>Clavis Sanationis</i> or <i>Synonyma medicinae</i> in 1292; it was first printed in 1473. He <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58660f/f193.chemindefer">lists</a> synonyms for <i>longum piper</i>, Greek <i>macropiper</i> and Arabic <i>darfulfel</i>.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Mandeville">Sir John Mandeville</a> has much to say that is interesting, if not credible. From an early English translation (in a Midlands dialect; none of the French versions seems to be readily available):</p><blockquote><p>And ȝee schulle undirstonde, þat þe Peper groweþe, in maner as doþe a wylde Vyne, þat is planted faste by þe Trees of þat Wode, for to susteynen it by, as doþe þe Vyne. And þe Fruyt þereof hangeþe in manere as Reysynges. And þe Tree is so þikke charged, þat it semeþe þat it wolde breke: and whan it is ripe, it is all grene as it were Ivy Beryes; and þan men kytten hem, as men don þe Vynes, and þan þei putten it upon an Owven, and þere it waxeþe blak and crisp. And þere is 3 maner of Peper, all upon o Tree; long Peper, blak Peper, and white Peper. Þe long Peper men clepen Sorbotyn; and þe blak Peper is clept Fulfulle, and þe white Peper is clept Bano. Þe long Peper comeþe first, whanþe Lef begynheþe to come; and it is lyche þe Chattes of Haselle, þat comeþe before þe Lef, and it hangeþe lowe. And aftre comeþe þe blake wiþ þe Lef, in manere of Clustres of Reysinges, alle grene: and whan men han gadred it, þan comeþe þe white, þat is somdelle lasse þan þe blake; and of þat men bryngen but litille into þis Contree; for þei beȝonden wiþ holden it for hem self, be cause it is betere and more attempree in kynde, þan þe blake: and þerfore is þer not so gret plentee as of þe blake. In þat contree ben manye manere of Serpentes and of oþer Vermyn, for þe gret hete of þe Contree and of þe Peper. And sūme men seyn, þat whan þei will gadre þe Peper, þei maken Fuyr, and brennen aboute, to make þe Serpentes and Cokedrilles to flee. But save here grace of alle þat seyn so. For ȝif þei brenten abouten þe Trees, þat beren, þe Peper scholden ben brent, and it wolde dryen up alle þe vertue, as of ony oþer þing: and han þei diden hemself moche harm; and þei scholde nevere quenchen þe Fuyr. But þus þei don; þei anoynten here Hondes and here Feet wiþ a juyce made of Snayles and of oþere þinges, made þerfore; of þe whiche þe Serpentes and þe venymous Bestes haten and dreden þe Savour: and þat makeþe hem flee before hem, because of þe smelle; and þan þei gadren it seurly ynow. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hdoRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA168&vq=peper">p. 168</a> of Halliwell's 1839 reprint of the 1725 <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PPpHAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA203&vq=peper">edition</a>, with <i>z</i> restored to <i>ȝ</i> and <i>th</i> to <i>þ</i>, per <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=NwwpiVHyBpcC&pg=PA8&vq=%22(Allgemein+werde+bemerkt,+dass+in+HA+f%C3%BCr+)+immer+z+und+f%C3%BCr+J%3E+immer+th+gedruckt+ist.)%22">Vogel</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=E5ANAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA112&vq=pepper">edition</a> with modernized spelling; there don't seem to be any actual facsimiles of <a href="http://bestiary.ca/manuscripts/manu4829.htm">Cotton Titus C. xvi</a> around)</p></blockquote><p>As outlined above, all three kinds of pepper from one tree was what the ancients believed. Of <i>sorbotin</i>, <i>fulful</i>, and <i>bano</i>, only the second is recognizable as the word for pepper; I have not seen any theories for either the literary source or the intended source language of the other two.</p><p>As for serpents guarding the pepper, the use of fire to chase them away and heat causing black pepper to turn black, much of it is in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoric_of_Pordenone">Odoric</a>, Mandeville's primary source:</p><blockquote><p>Now in this country they get the pepper in this manner. First, then, it groweth on plants which have leaves like ivy, and these are planted against tall trees as our vines are here, and bear fruit just like bunches of grapes; and this fruit is borne in such quantities that they seem like to break under it. And when the fruit is ripe it is of a green colour, and 'tis gathered just as grapes are gathered at the vintage, and then put in the sun to dry. And when it is dried it is stored in jars [and of the fresh pepper also they make a confection, of which I had to eat, and plenty of it]. And in this forest also there be rivers in which be many evil crocodiles, <i>i.e.</i> serpents. [And there be many other kinds of serpents in the forest, which the men burn by kindling tow and straw, and so they are enabled to go safely to gather pepper.] [And here there be lions in great numbers, and a variety of beasts which are not found in our Frank countries. And here they burn the brazil-wood for fuel, and in the woods are numbers of wild peacocks.] (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=CPonoC5wVM0C&pg=PA136&vq=pepper&sig=WEs5uYzVGbyKl2ratSyoA27nk-I">Yule</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Yule's translation is a synthesis of several originals: a Latin MS in the BNF, included as <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KzEMAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PR13&vq=piper">Appendix I</a>; an Old Italian MS in the Biblioteca Palatina, included as <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KzEMAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PR46&vq=pepe">Appendix II</a>; another Latin text published by <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Xkpg3DYJ2CwC&pg=PA383&vq=piper">Hakluyt</a>; and Cordier's edition of an Old French MS. The appendices are in the same volume (II) of the Indian reprint (similar to <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/book/24289177">one</a> I have) as the above preview, but they are also in a separate volume of an older edition with full view, which is where those links go, though the English volume of that set does not seem to have been scanned. Google's <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=qAcxAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover">scan</a> of the Old French only has the introductory section, either because it was separately bound in the set scanned or because the scan's pagination is messed up; there aren't enough pages in the scan to account for the number given in the Google Books meta-data, either. Yule's footnotes 3 and 4 are backwards: the first text, mentioning “forest,” is from Hakluyt and the other one from Palantina. Anyway.</p><p>All the texts have <i>crocodiles</i>, variously <i>cocoldrigae</i>, <i>crocodili</i>, <i>cocodrilli</i>, <i>cochodrillos</i>, and <i>cocolgrilli</i>. The Italian mentions the candy and lions and peacocks:</p><blockquote><p>E del pepe ricente fanno composto e io ne mangiai, ed ebbine assai. … e leoni in grande moltitudine, e diverse bestie che non sono in Franchia. Qui si arde il verzino per legne, e tutti i boschi son pieni di paoni salvatichi. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=CPonoC5wVM0C&pg=PA342&vq=pepe&sig=gJ8NUOC7cIocor7U2DCRnIgfw3Y">preview</a>)</p></blockquote><p>And the Hakluyt Latin burning the forest:</p><blockquote><p>In isto autem nemore sunt flumina multa in quibus sunt Crocodili multi, & multi alii serpentes sunt in illo nemore, quos homines per stupam & paleas comburunt, & sic ad colligendum piper secure accedunt. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Xkpg3DYJ2CwC&pg=PA383&vq=piper">here</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The basic outline of this process of gathering pepper into the three kinds was well known; for instance, the encyclopedist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholomeus_Anglicus">Bartholomaeus Anglicus</a>:</p><blockquote><p>Piper est semen vel fructus arboris ut fruticis in meriodionali parte caucasi montis crescentis contra fervidum aestum solis. ut dicit Isidorus liber xvij cuius folia junipero sunt similia / cuius siluas serpentes custodiunt; sed incole regionis illius cum silue maturae fuerint / eas incendunt, et serpentes ignis violentia effugantur & ex huius combustione grana piperis que naturaliter erant alba / effiaunt nigra accidentaliter & rugosa. Cuius triplex est species ut dicit idem. Nam est piper longum species quod est imaturum & piper album species quod ab igne incorruptum. & piper nigrum quod torrido calore ignis nigrum est in superficie & rugosum. (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k538169/f368.chemindefer">Book 17</a>)</p><p>Pepir hyghte piper: and is a ſede other the fruyte of a tree that growyth in the ſouth ſide of the hyll mount Caucaſus, in the ſtronge hete of the ſun, as Dyaſcorides ſayth. .li xvij. / The leuys therof ben lyke to leuys of Juniperus. And ſerpentes kepe the wodes that pepyr growyth in. And whan the wodes of pepper ben rype: men of that countree ſettyth them on fyre, & chacyth awaye ſerpentes by vyolence of fyre/ And by ſuche brennyng the greyne of pepyr yͭ was white by kynde is made blacke and ryuely. And of pepyr ben thre manere kyndes as he ſayth / for ſome pepyr is longe: and that is not rype. Some is whyte: and that is not corrupt by fyre ne blemyſhed wyth fyre. And ſome is blacke and ryvelyd wythout wyth perchynge & roſtynge of the hete of yͤ fyre. (tr. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Trevisa">Trevisa</a> in <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:6910:344">EEBO</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Which is essentially the same as Bartholomaeus' named source, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville">Isidore_of_Seville</a>'s <i>Etymologies</i>, which also proposes an etymology of <i>piper</i> / πέπερι:</p><blockquote><p>Piperis arbor nascitur in India, in latere montis Caucasi, quod soli obversum est, folia iuniperi similitudine. Cuius silvas serpentes custodiunt, sed incolae regionis illius, quum maturae fuerint, incendunt, et serpentes igni fugantur; et inde ex flamma nigrum piper efficitur. Nam natura piperis alba est, cuius quidem diversus est fructus. Nam quod inmaturum est, piper longum vocatur, quod incorruptum ab igni, piper album; quod vero cute rugosa et horrida fuerit, ex calore ignis trahit et colorem et nomen. Piper si leve est, vetustum est; si grave, novellum. Vitanda est autem mercatorum fraus; solent enim vetustissimo piperi humecto argenti spumam aut plumbum aspargere ut ponderosum fiat. (Book XVII, Chap. 8, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k60223d/f177.chemindefer">p. 87</a> of an early printed version; also <a href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/isidore/17.shtml">etext</a>)</p><p>The pepper tree (<i>piper</i>) grows in India, on the side of the Caucasian range that faces the sun. Its leaves are like the juniper's. Serpents protect the pepper groves, but the inhabitants of that region, when the peppers ripen, burn them, and the serpents are put to flight by the fire - and from this flame the pepper, which is naturally white, is made black. In fact there are several kinds of pepper fruits. The unripe kind is called 'long pepper'; that unaffected by fire, ‘white pepper’; but that which has a wrinkled and bristly skin takes both its color (i.e. ‘black’) and its name (cf. πῦρ, “fire”) from the heat of the fire. If a pepper is light in weight it is old; if heavy, it is fresh. But the fraud of the merchants should be guarded against, for they are wont to sprinkle litharge or lead over very old, moistened pepper to make it heavy. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=TdWwnp6v4z0C&pg=RA4-PA349&vq=pepper&sig=Nk4pda030XeVEuBCZya0W-jTztc">Barney</a>)</p></blockquote><p>A less fanciful traveler's account is given by Rabbi <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela">Benjamin of Tudela</a>:</p><blockquote><p>הַפִּלְפֵּל שֶׁהֵם נוֹטְעִים הָאִילָנוֹת שֶׁלָּהֶם עַל פְּנֵי הַשָּׂדֶה כָּל הָעִיר וְכָל אֶחָד וְאֶחָד מֵהֶם יוֹדֵעַ פַּרְדֵּסוֹ וְאִילָנוֹת קְטַנּוֹת הֵן וְהַפִּלְפֵּל לָבָן הוּא אֲבָל כְּשֶׁלּוֹקְטִין אוֹתוֹ מְשִׂימִין אוֹתוֹ בָּאַגָּנוֹת וְנוֹתְנִין עָלָיו מַיִם הַמִּים וּמְיַבְּשִׁין אוֹתוֹ לַשֶּׁמֶשׁ כְּדֵי שֶׁיִּתְחַוֵּק וְיִתְקַיֵּים וְהוּא חוֹזֵר שָׁחוֹר (p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=p5oFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PT35">91.1</a>)</p><p style="font-family:Code2000">hapilpēl šehēm nōṭʻīm hāʼīlānōṯ šellāhem ʻal pənēy haśśāḏeh kāl hāʻīr wəḵāl eḥāḏ wəʼeḥāḏ mēhem yōḏēʻa pardēsō wəīlānōṯ qəṭannōṯ hēn wəhapilpēl lāḇān hūʼ ăḇāl kəšellōqəṭīn ōṯō məśīmīn ōṯō bāʼagānōṯ wənōṯənīn ʻālāyw mayim hammīm ūməyabšīn ōṯō laššemeš kəḏēy šeyīṯəḥawēq wəyiṯqayēym wəhūʼ ḥōzēr šāḥōr</p><p>The pepper grows in this country; the trees, which bear this fruit are planted in the fields, which surround the towns, and every one knows his plantation. The trees are small and the pepper is originally white, but when they collect it, they put it into basins and pour hot water upon it; it is then exposed to the heat of the sun and dried in order to make it hard and more substantial, in the course of which process it becomes of a black colour. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=p5oFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA139&vq=pepper">Asher</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The idea of burning was widespread enough that it had to be addressed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a>:</p><blockquote><p>والعامة ببلادنا يزعمون أنّهم يقلونه بالنار وبسبب ذلك يحدث فيه التكريش وليس كذلك وإنما يحدث ذلك فيه بالشمس ولقد رأيته بمدينة قالقوط يصبّ للكيل كالذرة ببلادنا (<i>Voyages</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2LoHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA77">Vol. IV, p. 77</a>)</p><p style="font-family:Code2000">wa-ʼl-ʿāmmah bi-bilādinā yazʿumūna ʾannahum yaqlūna-hu bi-ʼl-nnāri wa-bisababi ḏālika yuḥdiṯu fī-hi al-takrīša wa-laysa kaḏālika wa-ʾinnamā yuḥdiṯu ḏālika fī-hi bi-ʼl-ššamsi wa-laqad raʾaytuhu bi-madīnahi qāliqūṭ yaṣubba li-l-kayli ka-ʼl-ḏḏurahi bi-bilādinā</p><p>Most people in our country suppose that they roast them with fire and it is because of that they become crinkled, but it is not so since this results only from the action of the sun upon them. I have seen pepper grains in the city of Qāliqūṭ being poured out for measuring by the bushel, like millet in our country. (tr. <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/35051816">Gibb</a>)</p></blockquote><p>And <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanus">Jordanus</a> in his <i>Mirabilia Descripta</i>:</p><blockquote><p>Piper est fructus herbæ quæ est ad modum hederæ quæ ascendit super arbores, et facit semen ad modum lambruscæ, quasi uvam; quod est primò viride; deindè cùm pervenit ad maturitatem, efficitur totum nigrum et rugatum, prout potestis videre. Sic etiam nascitur piper longum; nec credatis quod ignis ubi est piper, vel quod coquatur, sicut aliqui volunt dicere mendosè. (<i>Recueil de voyages</i>, Vol. IV, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=9bUBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49&vq=piper+longum">p. 49</a>)</p><p>Pepper is the fruit of a plant something like ivy, which climbs trees, and forms grape-like fruit like that of the wild vine. This fruit is at first green, then when it comes to maturity it becomes all black and corrugated as you see it. 'Tis thus that long pepper is produced, nor are you to believe that fire is placed under the pepper, nor that it is roasted, as some will lyingly maintain. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nhcH4E3li3AC&pg=RA1-PA27&vq=pepper&sig=qqZ6vmt0Av6yDnKQ3R9nB3MDqEg">Yule</a>)</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Da_Conti">Niccolò Conti</a>'s account of Malabar gives a rapid account of all kinds of social and natural facts (including a mention of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durian">durian</a>), and now the only fire involved is some ashes:</p><blockquote><p>Linteis vestiuntur et tela serica genu tenus. Uxores plures ducunt, domos depressas habent ad evitandum solis aestum. Idololatrae omnes. Pipere reliquo majore, et item longo pipere, comphora et auro plurimo abundant. Piperis arbor persimilis est ederae, grana ejus viridia ad formam grani juniperi, quae modico cinere aspersa torrentur as solem. Fructum viridem habent nomine durianum, magnitudine cucumeris, in quo sunt quinque veluti malarancia oblonga. varii saporis instar butyri coagulati. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KK82AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA40&vq=pipere%7Cpiperis">p. 40</a>)</p><p>Their garments are made of linen and silk, and hang down to their knees. The men marry as many wives as they please. Their houses are extremely low, in order to protect them against the excessive heat of the sun. They are all idolators. In this island pepper, larger than the ordinary pepper, also long pepper, camphor, and also gold are produced in abundance. The tree which produces the pepper is similar to the ivy, the seeds are green and resemble in form those of the juniper tree: they dry them in the sun, spreading a few ashes over them. In this island there also grows a green fruit, which they call <i>duriano</i>, of the size of a cucumber. When opened five fruits are found within, resembling oblong oranges. The taste varies, like that of cheese. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=l2cMAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA9&vq=pepper">Jones</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The mix of ancient science and medieval folklore was the basis for the early printed herbals. Among English herbals, the one known as <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/55171259">Banckes' Herbal</a></i> (1525) after the publisher and one claiming to be a translation from Latin of <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/55191576">Macer Floridus</a></i> (1543), but clearly derived from it or a common source:</p><table><tr><td width="50%">Piper. This is called Peper. Is is hote and dry in the .iiii. degre. There be .iii. maner of Pepers, blacke, whyte & lõge Peper. Diaſcorides and Conſtantyne ſaye that they be fruytes of trees growynge in Inde. And ſome ſay that Peper is made blacke with brennynge in yͤ fyre/ for whã it is gadered ther be great multytude of ſerpẽtes about it therefore they put it in the fyre to brenne the ſerpẽtes that be aboute it. The Saracyns dry it in an Ouen/ bycauſe it ſhall not encreaſe in another lande. But of all yͤ Pepers the blacke is the beſt & the moſt holſome. (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:5169:24">EEBO</a>)</td><td>Pyper. Piper this is called Peper, it is hote and drye in the fourth degre. There be thre maner of Pepers, blacke, whyte, and longe Peper. Diaſcorides and Conſtantyne ſaye, that they be fruytes of trees growynge in ynde, and ſome ſaye that Peper is made blacke with brennynge in the fyre, for whan it is gathered there be great multytude of ſerpẽtes aboute it, and therfore they put it in the fyre, to brenne the ſerpentes that be aboute it, the Saraſyns dry it in an ouen, bycauſe it ſhall not encreaſe in another lande, but of al yͤ Pepers the blacke is beſt, and the moſte holſome. (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:3925:37">EEBO</a>)</td></tr></table><p>And the <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/55165555">Grete Herball</a></i> (1526):</p><blockquote><p>Peper is hote in the begynnynge of the fourthe degre/ & drye in yͤ myddes of the ſame. There is thre ſortes of it for there is longe peper/ yͭ is called macropyper And there is whyte peper yͭ is called malano peper. Some ſay that they be fruyte of dyuers trees. But Conſtantyne and Dyaſcorides ſay that they be all thre of a tre growynge in ynde/ and ſome ſay that peper is made blacke by brennyng. For whan it ſholde be gadred for yͤ grete multytude of ſerpẽtes thereabout/ they ſet fyre about the trees yͭ the vermyn may be brent and go away. But yf that were trewe the trees ſholde be brẽt. And therfore this auctour ſayth yͭ they ben they ben fruytes all of one tree but whan it bereth floures/ thoſe floures gadre on the hepe & ſtretcheth alonge as the floure of haſyll & that is longe peper/ and than it bereth an other maner of lytell fruyte yͭ is called whyte peper & therof haue we none. But in ſtede of it is put catapuce or ſpourge of beyonde the ſee/ whiche is no peper/ for it is bygger and is not ſharpe as peper. And yf it be put in medycyne the ſubſtaũce win muſt be takẽ and not the huſkes Blacke peper is gadred whan it is rype/ and the ſaracyns bake it in an ouen for two cauſes. The fyrſte to kepe it longe/ & the ſeconde that it bere no fruyte nor growe in other coũtrees/ & the blacke peper is of more vertu thã yͤ whyte or longe peper/ (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:6433:112">EEBO</a>)</p></blockquote><p>For a more comprehensive list, see <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HrtLAAAAMAAJ&q=banckes&pgis=1#search">The Old English Herbals</a></i> (Dover <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/376954">reprint</a>). The corresponding French herbals, and in particular those titled <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/search?q=ti:grant+herbier&fq=yr:0..1550+>&se=yr&sd=asc&qt=sort_yr_asc">Le Grant herbier</a></i>, of which the <i>Grete Herbal</i> is a translation, do not seem to be scanned yet. There is Giulio Camus' <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xSkJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA104&vq=piper">analysis</a> of two manuscripts, one evidently the translation of the other, linking the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schola_Medica_Salernitana">Salernitan</a> <i>Circa instans</i> with the <i>Grant herbier</i>.</p><p>Something of a challenge to the illustrated herbals was that Europeans only knew the dried fruits and that plants, even if they could be had, could not grow in Europe. So, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembert_Dodoens">Rembert Dodoens</a> in his 1554 <i>Cruijdt-boeck</i>:</p><blockquote><p style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur">Tgheſlacht.</p><p style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur">Die oude meeſters ſcrijven dat Peper dryerhande es/ lanck wit ende ſwert/ diemẽ nu ter tijt oock noch in die huyſen van droghiſten ende in die Apoteken te coope vint.</p><p style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur">Tfatſoen.</p><p style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur">Van fatſoene van den boome daer dat Peper op groeyet/ en kunnen wy anders niet gheſcrijven/ dan dat wy by den ouders oft by den ghenen die in die landen ontrent Indien ende Calekouten verkeert hebben beſcreven vinden/ aengheſien dattet een vremt ſaet es dat ontrent deſe landẽ niet en groeyet. Ende daer om en ſelẽ wy hier af anders niet ſcrijven dã by dẽ ouders/ oft die corts in die landen verkeert hebbẽ gevondẽ wordt/ die nochtãs niet gelijck en ſprekẽ.</p><p>(<a href="http://leesmaar.nl/cruijdeboeck/deel5/capitel066.htm">Chap 66</a>; Chap. 60 of the 1557 French <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k534046/f469.chemindefer">translation</a>)</p><p><b>The Kinds</b></p><p>The old masters write that pepper is of three kinds: long, white and black, which one now also finds for sale in the druggists' houses and in the apothecaries.</p><p><b>The Shape</b></p><p>Of the shape of the plant on which pepper grows, we do not know what else to write, other than what we find written by the ancients or by those who have traveled in the lands around India and Calicut, seeing that it is a strange seed that does not grow around these lands. And there about we shall write here anything other than what can be found written by the ancients or those who traveled in the lands, who nevertheless do not speak alike.</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Andrea_Mattioli">Pietro Andrea Mattioli</a>, in his <i>Commentarii</i> on Dioscorides, Chapter CLIII: <b>Piper</b> (1554 <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58820r/f334.chemindefer">edition</a>; 1562 <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k53745m/f453.chemindefer">edition</a>, essentially the same), notes that Portuguese and Spanish travelers to India and the Americas, do not always agree with ancient accounts of pepper. After reviewing Theophrastus, Dioscorides and Pliny; and efforts to grow plants that were supposed to be pepper in Italy, he concludes, “Quo sit, mirum non sit, si piperis historia variant auctores” 'So it is, and no wonder, that authors vary on the story of pepper'.</p><p>A somewhat authoritative answer came from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garcia_de_Orta">Garcia de Orta</a>'s 1563 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Col%C3%B3quios_dos_simples_e_drogas_da_India"><i>Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India</i></a>. On whether black pepper and long pepper come from the same plant, he writes:</p><blockquote><p>E por aqui vereis como sam defrentes estes tres arvores, scilicet, <i>pimenta longa</i>, e <i>preta</i>, e <i>branca</i>; a qual pimenta longa se chama em Bengala, <i>pimpilim</i>, e o arvore d'ella nam tem mais semelhança com o da <i>preta</i>, do que tem as favas com os ovos: as outras duas arvores da<i> branca</i> e da<i> preta</i> sam muyto semelhantes uma com outra, e nam se conhece, senam da gente da terra, asi como nós nam conhecemos as videiras pretas das brancas, senam quando tem uvas. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ANQGAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA247&vq=pimenta+longa">here</a>)</p><p>And now you will see how the three trees are different, namely, long pepper, and black, and white; which long pepper is called <i>pimpilim</i> in Bengal, and its plant does not have any more resemblance to the black, than do beans to eggs; the other two trees, the white and the black, are very similar to one another, and cannot be distinguished, except by people from the country, just as we cannot distinguish black and white vines, except when they have grapes.</p></blockquote><p>Orta has gone too far: black and white pepper do come from the same plant. He later relates how he had a discussion with a druggist who said that while long pepper was a distinct plant, black and white were not; and the governor who was present related how he had seen a shipment of black pepper in Mozambique which contained some white pepper, presumably because the black part had gotten rubbed off (which is more or less correct, although white pepper is not picked at the same time), which Orta again attempted to refute. The matter was “settled” by writing the King of Cochin, who sent a sack of white pepper and said that they had many white pepper trees there. Orta also rejects pepper being called <i>barcamansi</i> as unlike any such word there, though I am not clear who actually claimed that.</p><p>The 1567 edition of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusius">Clusius</a>'s <i>Aromatum Historiae</i> has a single illustration of peppercorns on a stem (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VfM1vH0H1-kC&pg=PT269&dq=inauthor:orta&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=pDHUR9CYD46UzAT8mvyABA#PPT86,M1">Chap. 22</a>). The 1605 <i>Exoticorum libri decem</i> has a recognition of Garcia de Orta:</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Plantam</span> quæ longum Piper profert, ab eâ in qua nigrum naſcitur, longè diſſimilem eſſe ſcribit Garcias ab Orta in ſua Aromatum hiſtoria: ſed (quod eius viri pace dictum volo) plurimum fallitur, meâ quidem ſententiâ. (<a href="http://imgbase-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr/displayimage.php?album=338&pos=35">Chap. 20</a>)</p><p>The plant which produces long pepper, is far different from the one on which black [pepper] grows, writes Garcia de Orta in his history of spices: but (which I want said to that man in peace) he is most wrong, in fact, in my opinion.</p></blockquote><p>But it does now have a clear illustration of a long pepper plant, as does the preceding black pepper chapter. The bound-in edition of <i>Aromatum Historiae</i> has those new illustrations for black and long pepper, though the text is not changed, and the old illustration now relabeled as white pepper (<a href="http://imgbase-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr/displayimage.php?album=338&pos=197">Chap. 22</a>).</p><p>A similar development can be seen in comparing the editions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gerard">John Gerard</a>'s <i>Herbal</i>. The 1597 edition says:</p><blockquote><p><i>The kindes</i></p><p>There be diuers ſorts of Pepper, that is to ſay, white and blacke Pepper, long Pepper, one greater and longer than the other, and alſo a kinde of Ethiopian Pepper.</p><p><i>The deſcription</i></p><p>The plant that beareth Pepper, whether we may call it a tree or an herbie plant, it is diſputable; ſome holding it for a tree, ſome a kinde of Vine, and others for an herbe like vnto the <i>Conuoluuli</i>, or Bindweedes, whereupon we will not diſpute: but yeelding the cenſures of thoſe learned that haue written thereof, leauing the reſt that might be ſaid to a further conſideration.</p><p>The plant that beareth the black Pepper as alſo the white, groweth vp like a Vine among buſhes and brambles where it naturally groweth; …</p><p>The plant that bringeth white Pepper is not to be diſtinguiſhed from the other plant, but onely by the colour of the fruite, no more than a Vine that beareth blacke Grapes, from that which bringeth white: and of ſome it is thought, that the ſelfe ſame plant doth ſometimes change it ſelfe from blacke to white, as diuers other plants do. …</p><p>The tree that beareth long Pepper, hath no ſimilitude at all with the plant that bringeth blacke and white Pepper: ſome haue deemed them to groweth on one tree, which is not conſonant to truth: for they growe in countries far diſtant one from another; and alſo that countrie where there is blacke Pepper, hath not any of the long Pepper: and therefore <i>Galen</i> following <i>Dioſcorides</i>, where togither both ouerſeene in this point. This tree, ſaith <i>Monardes</i>, is not great, yet of a woodie ſubſtance, diſperſing here and there his claſping tendrels, wherewith it taketh holde of other trees, and ſuch other things as do growe neere vnto it. The branches are many and twiggie, whereon doth grow the fruite, conſiſting of many graines growing vpon a ſlender footeſtalke, thruſt or compact cloſe togither; greene at the firſt, and afterwarde blackiſh; in taſte ſharper and hotter than common blacke Pepper, yet ſweeter, and of better taſte. …</p><p><i>Mathioluſ</i> hath ſet foorth a figure of Pepper, condemned of moſt to be faigned; neuertheleſſe it agreeth with the firſt deſcription in diuers points; it differeth from the others in the cloſe and round bunches of fruit. The which figure we haue likewiſe inſerted among the reſt, vntill further certaintie may be knowen hereof. (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:23253:694">Chap. 146</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The illustrations are the earlier one of Clusius', the one from Mattioli, and one each for his two kinds of long pepper: <i>piper longum maius</i> and <i>piper longum minus</i>, which resemble one another except in the length of the spike. These have nothing to do with the disctinction between two kinds of Asian long pepper, Indian and Javanese. The key is the mention of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_Monardes">Nicolás Monardes</a>, who describes an American long pepper, which he calls <i>pimienta luenga</i>, which is another <i>Piper</i> species, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matico">matico</a>; he also illustrates it with a woodcut similar to all of Gerard's (<i>Historia medicinal de las cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pEHeQNiTzA0C&pg=RA2-PA90-IA2&vq=pimienta">p. 86</a>).</p><p>The 1633 edition of Gerard's<i> Herbal</i>, revised by Johnson,<i> </i>(the one with a Dover <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/2808694">reprint</a>; <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:23022:801">Chap. 152</a>) deletes the first paragraph of the description which hedges bets about whether it is a vine and starts with the statement that it is, adding:</p><blockquote><p>We are beholden to <i>Cluſius</i> for this exact figure and deſcription, which he made by certaine branches which were brought home by the Hollanders from the Eaſt Indies. The curious may ſee more hereof in his Exotickes and notes vpon <i>Garcias</i>.</p></blockquote><p>And, to the comparison with black and white grapes:</p><blockquote><p>Neither <i>Cluſius</i>, nor any other elſe that I haue yet met with, haue deliuered vs any thing of certaine, of the plant whereon white Pepper growes: <i>Cluſius</i> only hath giuen vs the manner how it growes vpon the ſtalkes, as you may ſee it here expreſt.</p></blockquote><p>And, to the long pepper:</p><blockquote><p>For this figure alſo I acknowledge my ſelfe beholden to the learned and diligent <i>Cluſius,</i> who cauſed it to be drawne from a branch of ſome foot in length, that he receiued from Dr. Lambert Hortenſius, who brought it from the Indies. …</p></blockquote><p>And it deletes the paragraph about Mattioli and his illustration. In place of his two different sized long pepper fruits, are Clusius' woodcuts of black, white and long pepper.</p><p>So too the 1644 edition of the <i>Cruidt-boeck</i>, still bearing Dodoens' name — he had been dead for half a century, but the brand lived on, has a chapter (<a href="http://leesmaar.nl/cruydtboeck/indiaensche/capitel31.htm">31</a>) on various peppers, taking the separate woodcuts from Clusius. Also included in this chapter are other pepper-like plants that Clusius had separately, such as <i>fagara</i> of Avicenna, which is probably Szechuan pepper.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspard_Bauhin">Gaspard Bauhin</a>'s Pinax (1623) separates out <i>Piper longum orientale,</i> <i>Piper longum Occidentale dimidii pedis longitudine</i> and<i> Piper longum angustissimum ex Florida</i>. (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k97448m/f435.table">p. 412</a>, III - V). The last two (which cover some New World peppers, but not chili peppers, <i>Piper indicum</i>, which are <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k97448m/f125.table">elsewhere</a>), each include an entry not previously discussed here. “Piper longum incolis Chiabe dictum Linscot. 4. par. Ind. orient. fig. 20.” refers to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Huyghen_van_Linschoten">Jan Huyghen van Linschoten</a>'s narrative in <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/18791359">Pars qvarta Indiæ Orientalis</a></i>, edited by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_de_Bry">Theodor de Bry</a>. This work itself does not appear to be online, though there are translations of Linschoten in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_zI7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA72&vq=pepper">English</a> and <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k84373m/f168.chemindefer">French</a>. Still, the reference is to an illustration and there <i>is</i> a dealer <a href="http://www.historical-prints.co.uk/EAST%20INDIES.htm">catalog</a> selling that print separately: search for item #538 and click View. (The whole <a href="http://www.mbamericana.com/De%20Bry%20Pars%20Quarta.htm">book</a> only costs $2K, so I'm afraid there is probably a good profit in cutting one up.) Some hot chili peppers were put into cultivation in Java, and the existing word <i>cabé</i> for Javanese long pepper adopted. (When necessary to distinguish, Javanese long pepper can be <i>cabé jawa</i>, in exactly the same way that other African groundnuts whose name was taken over by <a href="/2008/02/peanut-continued.html">peanuts</a> came to be called <i>X</i>-peanut, even by the inhabitants of <i>X</i>.) This crude illustration might be a foreign long hot pepper from America or the native Javanese long pepper. Second, “Piper longum, Felfel, Alpino.” refers to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospero_Alpini">Prospero Alpini</a>'s work on Egyptian plants and medicine, published posthumously in two volumes, which are scanned into <a href="http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/no_cache/dms/load/img/?IDDOC=277132">GDZ</a>, which unfortunately does not support deep linking. Alpini does report a <i>piper longum</i>, saying in the first part, “Habent & plantam quam piper longum appellant, quae piperis acrimoniam majorem in foliis habet, usumque aliquando habet in exigua quantitate piperis loco in ciborum condimentis” 'They also have a plant which they call long pepper, which has much of pepper's pungency in the leaves, and has use sometimes in small quantities in place of pepper as seasoning for food' (page 181:159) and describing it further in the second part, in <i>De Plantis Aegtypi</i>, chapter XXX (page 116 : 46). But the reference picked up by Bauhin with the native name must be to the note by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Vesling">Johann Vesling</a>, titled “Felfel tavil”, with an illustration on the facing page (page 310 : 190). That is, فلفل طويل <i>fulful tawīl</i> literally 'long pepper'. But this turns out to be an entirely different plant, which Linneaus <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_QwAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA647&dq=felfel+tavil">classified</a> as <i>Euphorbia viminalis</i> and which now seems to be known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphorbia_tirucalli"><i>Euphorbia tirucalli</i></a>, the pencil tree, which is a traditional medicine, but not a condiment. In any case, it seems that there was also a native African long pepper. Still, the note also gives a name <i>felfel rumi</i>, that is فلفل رومي 'Roman pepper', which is used for hot chili peppers.</p><p><a href="http://www.illustratedgarden.org/mobot/rarebooks/author.asp?creator=Piso, Willem&creatorID=111">Willem Piso</a>'s <i>Mantissa Aromatica</i>, the sixth volume of <a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/79194577"><i>De Indiae utriusque re naturali et medica libri quatuordecim</i></a> (1658) is one of the mysteriously unavailable works in <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/scripts/ConsultationTout.exe?O=n098750">Gallica</a>. I hope whatever the issue is gets resolved, or at least does not spread to other works.</p><p>A convenient break from the Renaissance herbals can be taken with the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Plukenet">Leonard Plukenet</a> at the end of 17th century. His <i>Phytographia</i> (1691) illustrates long pepper (Tab. 104, Fig. 4, <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:94117:110">EEBO</a>) and his Almagestum botanicum (1696) catalogs and sorts names and references (p. 297, <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:33999:151">EEBO</a>; also in <a href="http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/no_cache/dms/load/img/?IDDOC=278988">GDZ</a>, select page 301 : 297). He distinguishes several <i>Piper</i> species, mostly separating black and long pepper and other peppers (chili peppers are classed under <i>Solanum mordens</i>, p. 353, <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:33999:179">EEBO</a>, GDZ 357 : 353).</p><p>Volume 7 of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_van_Rheede">Hendrik van Rheede</a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hortus_Malabaricus"><i>Hortus Malabaricus</i></a> on the flora of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala">Kerala</a>, from 1686-1688, (the scanned volumes in <a href="http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/view/authors/Van_Reede_Tot_Drakestein,_Hendrik_Adriaan.html">SICD</a> are strangely incomplete) describes and illustrates <i>Cattu-Tírpali</i> (<a href="http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/501926">p. 27</a>; <a href="http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/501925">Tab. 14</a>; note the hand-written <i>Piper longum</i> on the <a href="http://www.mobot.org/">MBG</a>'s copy). I am not great at hand-written Malayalam, but I think the legend reads കാട്ടുതിപ്പലി <i style="font-family:Code2000">kāṭṭu-thippali</i>, along the lines of Tamil காட்டுத்திப்பலி <i style="font-family:Code2000">kāṭṭu-t-tippali</i> 'wild long pepper'.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Eberhard_Rumphius">Rumphius</a>' <i>Herbarium amboinense</i>, published posthumously in 1750, records <i>Piper longum</i> (Book 9, Chap 1, <a href="http://www.botanicus.org/page/245030">p. 333-334</a>; <a href="http://www.botanicus.org/page/245032">Tab. 116</a>, Fig. 1) in Indonesia (specifically <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambon_Island">Amboina</a>), known in Malay as <i>tsjabe</i> (<i>chabai</i>), native to Java and the same as in Bengal.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Loureiro">João de Loureiro</a>'s 1790 <i>Flora Cochinchinensis</i> recorded<i> P. longum </i>in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UhoOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA32">p. 32</a>), giving Vietnamese names <i>cây lốt</i> (that is, the <i>lốt</i> plant or <i>lá lốt</i> '<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lolot">lolot</a>', now a separate species) and <i>tắt phắt</i> and Chinese <i>pipŏ</i> (that is, 蓽撥).</p><p>As for the scientific names for long pepper:</p><ul><li>In 1753, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>' <i>Species plantarum</i> listed <i>Piper longum</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=JBoOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA29&vq=Piper+lon^um">5</a>).</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Vahl_(botanist)">Martin Vahl</a>'s 1805 <i>Enumeratio plantarum</i> proposed <i>Piper retrofractum</i> (<a href="http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/546286">9</a>) for a long pepper native to the East Indies.</li><li>Cataloging pepper species found on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penang_Island">Penang Island</a> in 1809, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=InFTmnS4crYC&pg=PA211&vq="hunter+william+1755+1812"">William Hunter</a> proposed a new species, <i>Piper chaba</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RJMBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA391&vq=piper+chaba">4, but labeled 3</a>) for what he names in Malay as <i>chábatádi</i>, based on a clear distinction between the figures of Rumphius' <i>Piper Longum Tsjabe</i> and Rheede's <i>Cattu-tirpali</i>. He notes that <i>Piper longum</i> is Sanskrit पिप्पली <i>pippalī</i> / Hindi पीपल <i>pīpal</i> and the plant under consideration चविका <i>cavikā</i> / चाब <i>cāb</i>, whose produce is supposedly called गजपिप्पली <i>gaja-pippalī</i> / गजपीपल <i>gaj-pīpal</i> (which is generally considered the same as गजकृष्णा <i>gaja-kṛṣṇā</i> '<i>Scindapus officinalis</i>'), with the drug actually sold under that name coming from some other plant altogether.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Anton_Wilhelm_Miquel">Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel</a>'s 1843 <i>Systema Piperacearum</i> proposed <i>Chavica roxburghii</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Yx0OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA239">8</a>) for long pepper and <i>Chavica officinarum</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Yx0OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA256">20</a>) for Javanese long pepper.</li><li>Casimir de Candolle's survey of Piperaceae in <i>Prodromus Systematis Naturalis</i> (1869) recognized <i>Piper officinarum</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ixEAAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA2-PA356&vq=piper+officinarum">478</a>) for Javanese long pepper (among over 600 <i>Piper</i> species).</li><li>The current consensus is that there are two species of long pepper, basically the Indian and Indonesian kinds. <i>Piper longum</i> Linn. is the accepted name for the former. And for the latter, the subject of this post, <i>Piper retrofractum</i> Vahl, subsuming synonyms <i>Chavica officinarum</i> Miq., <i>Piper officinarum</i> C. DC., and <i>Piper chaba</i> Hunter.</li></ul><p>In commerce, there was no concerted attempt to distinguish the two species, and in fact most of the long pepper that was sold to Europe as a spice up until the end of the 19th century, and maybe into the 20th, was probably Javanese long pepper. Javanese long pepper is even imported into India. So too in traditional medicine. Here is a <a href="http://www.thieme-connect.com/ejournals/abstract/plantamedica/doi/10.1055/s-2006-950131">paper</a> that outlines how to tell the two apart using chromography: the authors tested batches of Chinese bibo (荜拨), which should have been <i>P. longum</i> and found most to be <i>P. retrofractum</i>.</p><p>The essay “Long Pepper: A Short History” from <i>Petits Propos Culinaires</i> and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zp6Km3tTBxQC&pg=PA177&dq=%22long+pepper%22&ei=OuDjR7OvDpG0yQSdlZTRBA&sig=TMigJXiXkF8O0ma1gE8axBtTme0">reprinted</a> in the collection <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/403660">The Wilder Shores of Gastronomy</a></i>, suggests that the loss of popularity of the long pepper as a seasoning, even at the same time that a higher quality version was found in Java, was due to the introduction of chili peppers. Black pepper was adequate for a slightly pungent taste, and anything stronger was more easily achieved with them.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-57265194869186276272008-02-03T22:34:00.003-05:002008-03-08T22:33:18.459-05:00Peanut, Continued<p>Continued from <a href="/2008/01/peanut.html">here</a>, which had gotten as far as Linnaeus naming <i>Arachis hypogaea</i>.</p><p>Peanuts did not gain much in Europe proper. Because they require a long growing period underground, they can only be grown about as far north as Austria. Even in the south, they were primarily used as a source of vegetable oil, specifically for cutting olive oil.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2008/02/peanut-continued.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>European terms for 'peanut' predictably concentrate on the odd method of growth.</p><ul><li>The generic name (sometimes referring to the plant, rather than the nut): French <i>arachide</i>, Russian <i>арахис</i>.</li><li>Direct Germanic cognates: English earth-nut, German <i>Erdnuß</i>, Dutch <i>aardnoot</i>, Swedish <i>jordnöt</i>, Norwegian <i>jordnøtt</i>, Danish <i>jordnød</i>, Icelandic <i>jarðhneta</i>, Faeroese <i>jarðnøt</i>.<br>Note that <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthnut">earthnut</a></i> can mean various geocarpic plants and that in particular the Old English <i>eorþ-hnutu</i>, which survived until much later as dialectical <i>yar-nut</i>, meant <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conopodium_majus">Conopodium majus</a></i>, Shakespeare's “<a href="http://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/Library/facsimile/book/Bran_F1/28/">pig-nut</a>.” Likewise, <i><a href="http://www.woerterbuchnetz.de/woerterbuecher/dwb/wbgui?lemid=GE07144">Erdnuß</a></i> can mean <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lathyrus_tuberosus">Lathyrus tuberosus</a></i> and <i><a href="http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/show.phtml?filenr=1/110/28154.html#JORDN%C3%96T">jordnöt</a></i> that or <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithogalum_umbellatum">Ornithogalum umbellatum</a></i>.</li><li>Words meaning the same: English ground-nut, Finnish <i>maapähkinä</i>, Estonian <i>maapähkel</i>, Russian земляной орех, Polish <i>orzech ziemny</i>, Latvian <i>zemesrieksts</i>, Lithuanian <i>zemesrieksts</i>, Turkish <i>yerfıstığı</i>.<br>Again note that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundnut">groundnut</a> can mean various plants and so when the Massachusetts colonists are subsisting in the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=9HEFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA385&vq=ground-nuts">winter of 1630-1631</a> on, “clams, muscles, and ground-nuts, and acorns,” <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apios_americana">Apios americana</a>, “Indian potato,” is meant.</li><li>Variants of specific kinds of nuts: English earth-almond, French <i>pistache de terre</i> 'earth pistachio', <i>noisette de terre</i> 'earth hazelnut', Italian <i>pistacchio-di-terra</i> 'earth pistachio', <i>mandorla-di-terra</i> 'earth almond', Hungarian <i>földimogyoró</i> 'earth hazelnut', German <i>Erdeichel</i> 'earth acorn'.</li><li>Variants of legumes: English earth-pea, French <i>pois de terre</i> 'earth pea', Italian <i>ceci di terra</i> 'earth chickpea'.</li><li>Slightly different are Czech <i>burský oříšek</i>, which I believe means 'Boer nut' and Slovak <i>podzemnica olejná</i>, which I believe means something like 'underground oil-seed'.</li><li>The decidedly odd case is Croatian / Bosnian <i>kikiriki</i>, Serbian / Macedonian кикирики, Albanian <i>kikirik</i>.<br>A <a href="http://forum.wordreference.com/showthread.php?t=135544">wordreference.com</a> discussion does not reach any definitive conclusion, with suggestions including:<ul><li>Turkish slang <i>kikirik</i> 'tall, skinny person'.</li><li><i>Kikiriki</i> (that is, <i>quiquiriqui</i>) is the sound Spanish roosters make.</li><li>Italian <i>chicchi ricchi</i> 'rich grains' (but also the sound Italian roosters make).</li><li>“Bratoljub Klaić … in his <i>Dictionary of foreign words in Serbo-Croatian</i> …: <br><b>kikiriki</b> - compare: "tò kíki - Egyptian name of a miraculous tree sillikýpria, called by other people also kiki", Senc, <i>Greek-Croatian Dictionary</i>”<br><span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">σιλλικύπριον</span> (= <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">σέσελι Κύπριον</span> 'Cyprian hartwort') or <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">κίκι</span> is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castor_oil_plant">castor-oil plant</a> (Egyptian <i><a href="http://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/servlet/GetWcnDetails?wn=163690">k3k3</a></i>; the <a href="http://cf.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H07021&Version=kjv">קיקיון</a> of <a href="http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/c.pl?book=Jon&chapter=4&verse=6&version=KJV#6">Jonah</a>), but I'm not sure what the connection is or where the rest is supposed to come from.</li></ul></li></ul><p>But Portuguese explorers and slavers also brought the peanut to Africa and Portuguese and Spanish to Asia.</p><p>One of the reasons that the peanut was quickly adopted as a foodstuff in Africa was that it was a superior replacement for an existing plant, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bambara_groundnut">Bambara ground-nut</a> (and, in a more limited area, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrotyloma_geocarpum">Hausa ground-nut</a>), whose pods also ripen underground. The Bambara ground-nut is described by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a> in the 14th century in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali_Empire">Mali</a>:</p><blockquote><p>ويستخرجون من هذه الأرض حبّات كالفول فيقلونها ويأكلونها وطعمها كطعم الحِمِّص المقلوّ وربّما طحنوها وصنعوا منها شبه الإسْفُنْج وقلوه بالغَرْتِي والغرتي بفتح الغين المعجم وسكون الرآء وكسر التآء المُثنّاة هو ثمر كالإجّاص شديد الحلاوة مُضرّ بالبِيضان إذا أكلوه (<i>Voyages</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2LoHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA392">Vol. IV p. 392</a>)</p><p style="font-family:Code2000">wa-yastaḫriǧūna min hāḏihi al-arḍi ḥabbāti ka-ʼl-fūli fa-yaqlūna-hā wa-yakulūna-hā wa-ṭaʿmu-hā ka-ṭaʿmi al-ḥimmiṣi al-maqlūwi wa-rubbamā ṭaḥanū-hā wa-ṣanaʿwā min-hā šibh al-isfunǧi wa-qalaw-hu bi-ʼl-ġartī wa-ʼl-ġartī [bi-fatḥi al-ġayni al-muʿǧam wa-sukūn al-rāʾ wa-kasr al-tā al-muṯannāh] huwa ṯamar ka-ʼl-iǧǧāṣi šadīd al-ḥalāwah muḍirr bi-ʼl-bīḍān iḏā akalū-hu</p><p>They take out of the ground grains like beans which they fry and eat; their flavour is like fried chickpeas. Sometimes they grind them to make something like a fritter, which is fried with <i>ghartī</i>, which is fruit like a very sweet plum, but it is bad for white people if they eat it. (tr. <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/35051816">Gibb</a>)</p></blockquote><p>فول <i style="font-family:Code2000">fūl</i> is 'bean' in general, but '<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicia_faba">fava bean</a>' in particular; it occurs in the names of Middle Eastern dishes like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ful_Medames">Ful medames</a>; this Semitic word (cf. Hebrew פול <i>pol</i> in <a href="http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/c.pl?book=Eze&chapter=4&verse=9&version=KJV#9">Eze 4:9</a>) is borrowed into Ancient Egyptian as <i><a href="http://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/servlet/GetWcnDetails?wn=60240">pr</a></i> (and not the other way around, as the Wikipedia seems to imply); Modern Arabic for 'peanut' is فول سوداني <i>fūl sūdānī</i> 'Sudanese bean'. حمص <i style="font-family:Code2000">ḥimmiṣ</i> 'chick-pea' with a different vocalization is <i style="font-family:Code2000"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hummus">ḥummuṣ</a></i>, which is made from them. Although قلو <i style="font-family:Code2000">qlw</i> is consistently translated 'fry' here, I believe the first two should be 'roast', since no oil is added; the <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000247.pdf">root</a> seems to refer to cooking in a frying pan. أسفنج <i style="font-family:Code2000">isfunǧ</i>, translated here as 'fritter', refers to some kind of spongy cake; I assume the word is borrowed from Greek σπογγιά (also Attic σφογγιά) = σπόγγος 'sponge', which through Latin <i>spongia</i> gives most European words for 'sponge', as well as <i>fungus</i>; the ultimate origin of this word seems to be unknown. غرتي <i style="font-family:Code2000">ġartī</i> is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shea_butter">Shea butter</a>; the word used here, like the French word <i><a href="http://www.cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/karité">karité</a></i>, is borrowed from the African name, for instance, Soninke <i>kharite</i> or Wolof <i>karite</i>, apparently ultimately meaning 'life'; the part in brackets in the transliteration, which is not translated in the English, clarifies the vocalization of the foreign word (see Lameen Souag's comment): 'with <i>fatḥa</i> after the foreign <i>ghayn</i> and <i>sukūn</i> after the <i>rāʾ</i> and <i>kasra</i> after the <i>tāʾ</i>; repeated twice'.</p><p>The same Portuguese ships that brought the peanut to Africa brought the Bambara ground-nut to South America, so that it features in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Marcgrave">Georg Marcgrave</a>'s 1648 <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/4011672"><i>Historia Naturalis Brasiliae</i></a> (mentioned in the previous post), a few pages after the peanut, as “Mandubi d'Angola” (Vol. I, <a href="http://www.botanicus.org/page/289136">p. 43</a>).</p><p>In 1806, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Marie_Aubert_du_Petit-Thouars">Louis-Marie Aubert du Petit-Thouars</a> described Bambara ground-nut as a new genus from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, including it in his <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/6690395">Genera nova Madagascariensia</a></i> and giving it the scientific name <i>Voandzeia subterranea</i>. (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k97449z/f23.item">p. 23</a>) Linnaeus had previously named it <i>Glycine subterranea</i>, as the text acknowledges; this is not a question of priority, since that genus included other plants as well. The matter has since been rendered moot, though, since it is now classified in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigna">Vigna</a></i> with azuki and mung beans and black-eyed peas. <i>Voandzou</i> (<i>voanjo</i>) was the Malagasy name, already described in 1658 by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Étienne_de_Flacourt">Flacourt</a> in his <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/16513915">Histoire de la grande isle de Madagascar</a></i>:</p><blockquote><p>Les <i>Voandzou</i>, ſe ſont eſpeces de feves qui viennent ſous terre, vne ſemée en produira pour en manger plein vne grande eſcuelle chacune à ſon eſcorce. (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1047463/f141.table">p. 114</a>)</p><p><i>Voandzou</i>, c'eſt vne eſpece de feves qui multiplient fort, mais le fruit eſt dans la terre, & eſt dans chacune ſa gouſſe ou coque. Les fueilles de l'herbe ſont trois à trois comme vn treffle, il n'y a point de ſouche ny tiges, ny branches, ſi ce n'eſt la tige des trois fueilles, ie les nomme feves ſouterraines. (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1047463/f146.table">p. 118</a>)</p><p><i>Voanjo</i> are kinds of beans which form underground, one planted will produce a great bowl-full of them for eating, each with its own bark.</p><p><i>Voanjo</i>, it is a kind of beans which replicate strongly, but the fruit is in the earth, and each one is in a pod or hull. The leaves are three-by-three like a clover; there is no stock or stems or branches, except the stem of three-leaves; I name them underground beans.</p></blockquote><p>The name is now <i>voanjo bory</i> 'round peanut', <i>voanjo</i> now being 'peanut'. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Perrier_de_la_Bâthie">H. Perrier de la Bâthie</a> <a href="http://www.genres.de/SEARCH/BAMB_BIBL/DDW?W=CHAPTER+=+'2'*+ORDER+BY+EVERY+AUTHORS/Ascend&M=33&K=182&R=Y&U=1">analyzes</a> this as <i>voa-</i>, a common prefix for plants + <i>anjo</i> 'what satisfies, nourishes well' (but see below).</p><p>Words for 'Bambara ground-nut' are often repurposed for 'peanut' like this, with a qualification then being added for the less useful original meaning. For instance, in Yungur, <i>sh<sup>n</sup>ara bənara</i> 'Yungur peanut' means 'Bambara ground-nut' (see <a href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Ethnoscience%20data/NE%20Nigeria-Agriculture.pdf">here</a>). And in Swahili, <i>njugu</i> (or more fully <i>njugunyasa</i>) is 'peanut' and <i>njugumawe</i> 'hard (lit. stone) peanut' is 'Bambara ground-nut'. This can make it difficult to interpret which nut is meant in some early texts. And when no native word is given with a description, even more plants are possible.</p><p>The South American origin of peanuts was more or less settled in 1838 when <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bentham">George Bentham</a> wrote “On the structure and affinities of Arachis and Voandzeia” (in <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/transactionsofli03linn">here</a>, pp. 155-162), which described five more <i>Arachis</i> species there (p. 159). These are included in <i>Flora Brasiliensis</i> (Vol. XV, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96567x/f48.table">p. 85</a> + <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96567x/f203.chemindefer">Plate 23</a>; also in the <a href="http://florabrasiliensis.cria.org.br/taxonCard?id=FB2371">online indexed</a> version). Further evidence came from the finding of peanuts in archeological sites in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancón_District">Ancón</a>, Peru (reported in <a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittmack">Ludwig Wittmack</a>'s 1888 paper “Die Nutzpflanzen der alten Peruaner” <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=--YNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&vq=arachis">here</a>).</p><p>The first European mention of an underground African nut was in the c. 1508 manuscript by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentim_Fernandes">Valentim Fernandes</a>:</p><blockquote><p>Comẽ arroz e milho jnhames macarras feyxões … (fol. 134 v., p. 94 of the 1938 <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/6328552">edition</a>)</p><p>They eat rice, millet, yams, <i>macarras</i>, beans, …</p><p>Macarras rayzes e fruito nacẽ de bayxo do chãao. (fol. 137 v., p. 98)</p><p>The roots and fruits of the <i>macarra</i> grow under the ground.</p></blockquote><p>Presumably Bambara ground-nut is meant. Portuguese for 'peanut' in Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau is <i>mancarra</i>.</p><p>An account of the rivers of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea">Portuguese Guinea</a> written in 1594 by <a href="http://www.barrosbrito.com/1746.html">André Álvares de Almada</a>, a Cape Verdean with a Portuguese father, titled <i>Tratado breve dos Rios de Guiné</i>,<i> </i>but not <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/14053806">published</a> until 1733, also mentions <i>macaras</i>:</p><blockquote><p>E assim se resgata muito mantimento de milho e arroz, e <i>macaras</i>, que he hum mantimento redondo, e tem o sabor de favas; e dá-se este mantimento debaixo do chão mettido n'humas baguinhas, nas raizes, e se recolhe muito naquellas Ilhas; e ha outros mantimentos e fructos. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=CSlIsxR-s4oC&pg=PA55&dq=macaras">p. 55</a> of a later <a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/25946421">edition</a>)</p><p>There is also much trade in provisions, in the form of <i>milho</i>, rice in the husk, and <i>macarras</i>, a foodstuff round in shape and tasting like broad beans; and this foodstuff grows underground inserted as little berries, among the roots, and large quantities are harvested on these islands. There are other staple foods and fruits. (tr. after Hair, from the variorum text, <a href="http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/AfricaFocus/AfricaFocus-idx?type=turn&entity=AfricaFocus.Almada01.p0120">p. 99</a>)</p></blockquote><p>According to <a href="http://www.lmi.org.uk/medical_society/12/12Obituary.pdf">Paul E H Hair</a>'s “An Ethnolinguistic Inventory of the Upper Guinea Coast before 1700” (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nGkOAAAAYAAJ&q=macaras+groundnut&pgis=1#search">snippet</a>; reprinted in this <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/isbn/0860786269">book</a>), 'peanut' is <i>maŋgara</i> is Balanta and <i>maŋkaara</i> in Guiné Crioulo. That same paper (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nGkOAAAAYAAJ&q=manganaxa&pgis=1">snippet</a>) also compares this to Almada's later <i>amanganacho</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=CSlIsxR-s4oC&pg=PA64&vq=manganacho">p. 64</a>; <a href="http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/AfricaFocus/AfricaFocus-idx?type=turn&entity=AfricaFocus.Almada01.p0137">translation</a>), a word appearing in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=GWUbAAAAIAAJ&q=manganaxa&dq=manganaxa&ei=1j6yR8HjE43WzATppajADQ&pgis=1">Coelho</a> (1669) as <i>manganaxa</i>. But <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=bhUwX6xHqUIC&pg=PA332&dq=amanganacho+manganas&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=rr-zR87mKIjcygSX7IzIBQ&sig=X1qHhJjV_n-bV_YyzBqxmhShZVo">other</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=uvUyAAAAIAAJ&q=amanganacho+manganas&dq=amanganacho+manganas&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=rr-zR87mKIjcygSX7IzIBQ&pgis=1">sources</a> and Hair's own <a href="http://books.google.com/books?ei=c0edR7eDFYTIyATUo9WbCg&id=qR08AAAAMAAJ&dq=mancarras&q=amanganacho+manganace+icacina+senegalensis&pgis=1#search">notes</a> later in a edition of a <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/5678981">Descrição da Serra Leoa</a></i> from 1625, where it appears as <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?ei=c0edR7eDFYTIyATUo9WbCg&id=qR08AAAAMAAJ&dq=mancarras&q=Mangan%C3%A1s&pgis=1#search">Manganás</a></i>, all agree that that is <i><a href="http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ICSE">Icacina senegalensis</a></i>, <i>manganace</i> in Crioulo, so I assume that is the current belief.</p><p>For the British English <i>monkey nut</i> 'peanut', the OED notes:</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-variant:small-caps">monkey</span> is perh. used as an alteration of the name for the peanut in a West African language: similar-sounding forms are found in coastal languages from Senegal to Togo, e.g. Badyara <i>mankoli</i>, Balanta <i>mangara</i>, Diola <i>é mangera</i>, <i>mankara</i>, Crioulo (Guinea-Bissau) <i>mancara</i>, <i>macara</i>, Baga <i>makan</i> (plural), Temne <i>makantr</i> (plural).</p></blockquote><p>And with so many texts digitized since this entry was revised in 2002, it is naturally easy to find a use of “monkey nut” (that is definitely a peanut and not a coconut) from a few years before the 1880 quotation in the OED:</p><blockquote><p>The pods of the ground nut (<i>Arachis hypogæa</i>), commonly known by the name of “monkey nut,” … (<i>Year-Book of Pharmacy … 1871, </i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=wAUFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22monkey+nut%22+arachis">p. 59</a>)</p></blockquote><p>In “Linguistic evidence for cultivated plants of the Bantu borderland” (<a href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Ethnoscience%20data/Bantu%20cultivated%20plants.pdf">online</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Blench">Roger Blench</a> shows a split in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benue-Congo_languages">Benue-Congo</a> languages in the words for 'Bambara ground-nut' between East and West, tending to indicate that the plant was domesticated after that major division. A West Benue-Congo root <i style="font-family:Code2000">#-kpa</i> is fairly confidently reconstructed from Yoruba <i style="font-family:Code2000">ekpa</i>, Isoko <i style="font-family:Code2000">upapa</i>, Igbo <i style="font-family:Code2000">ɔ̀kpa</i>, Gbagyi <i style="font-family:Code2000">opwa</i> and Idoma <i style="font-family:Code2000">ikpeyi</i>. An somewhat less confident East Benue-Congo reconstruction is <i style="font-family:Code2000">#-gunu</i> from tHun <i style="font-family:Code2000">ù-gwə̀nə̀</i>, Nnakenyare <i style="font-family:Code2000">guum</i> and Vute <i style="font-family:Code2000">ŋgóm</i>. He also notes that in Mbembe the <i style="font-family:Code2000">#-kpa</i> root appears for 'peanut', but does not give the word itself.</p><p>In “Les plantes d'origine américaine en Afrique bantoue: une approche linguistique” (<a href="http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/fulltext/Philippson/Bahuchet_1998.pdf">online</a>), <a href="http://www.ecoanthropologie.cnrs.fr/spip.php?article143">Serge Bahuchet</a> and <a href="http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/annuaires/Index.asp?Action=Edit&Langue=FR&Page=Gerard PHILIPPSON">Gérard Philippson</a> trace several Bantu roots that refer to peanuts and/or Bambara ground-nuts. The most widespread of these is <i style="font-family:Code2000">*-jùgú</i>: reaching geographically from Pinji <i style="font-family:Code2000">ndjulu</i> in the northeast to Swahili <i style="font-family:Code2000">njugu</i> in the East to Shona <i style="font-family:Code2000">nzungu</i> and Zulu <i style="font-family:Code2000">indlubu</i> (<i style="font-family:Code2000">índɮùùɓú</i>) in the southeast; and phonetically from Makua <i style="font-family:Code2000">et̪o</i> 'Bambara ground-nut' to Giryama <i style="font-family:Code2000">ndzugu</i> 'peanut'. In the northeastern highlands where Bambara ground-nuts are not found, it refers to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon_pea">pigeon-pea</a>, for instance, Kikuyu <i style="font-family:Code2000">ɲjoɣo</i>; this leads to Dawida having both the regular reflex <i style="font-family:Code2000">tʃùɣù</i> 'pigeon-pea' and the borrowed <i style="font-family:Code2000">ndʒùgù</i> 'peanut'. In “Cultivated crops and Bantu migrations in Central and Eastern Africa: a linguistic approach” (<a href="http://www.ecoanthropologie.cnrs.fr/pdf/SB_crops.pdf">online</a>), they further propose that the second part of the Malagasy <i>voa-njo</i> (see above) is likely borrowed from some Bantu language. The other roots covered are <i style="font-family:Code2000">*-guba</i>, such as Lingala <i style="font-family:Code2000">ŋgúbà</i>; <i style="font-family:Code2000">*-nyimu</i>, such as Kaonde <i style="font-family:Code2000">ɲimu</i>; and <i style="font-family:Code2000">*-kalanga</i>, such as Swahili <i style="font-family:Code2000">karaŋga</i>.</p><p>Two Portuguese shipwrecks off the coast of South Africa had to live off the produce of the mainland, which included <i>jugo</i>. Their reports are among those collected in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_McCall_Theal">George McCall Theal</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/152400193">Records of South-Eastern Africa</a></i>, which isn't complete in Google Books, but is all in the Internet Archive. The Santo Alberto wrecked in 1593 at <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_DAMAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA655&vq=Penedo+das+Fontes+Fountain+rock">Penedo das Fontes</a> (Fountain rock, evidently now a major scuba spot). Her pilot, <a href="http://nautarch.tamu.edu/shiplab/treatisefiles/tt-lavanha-pmonteiro.htm">Joao Baptista Lavanha</a>, chief cosmographer to the King, compiled his journal in 1597:</p><blockquote><p>e hum legume chamado Jugo, que he do tamanho de favas pequenas, (<a href="http://www.archive.org/details/recordsofsouthea02theaiala">Vol. II</a>, p. 256)</p><p>a vegetable called jugo, which is of the size of small beans, (p. 317)</p></blockquote><p>The São João Baptista wrecked in 1622 on the coast of the Cabo de Boa Esperanja (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a>) and <a href="http://www.arqnet.pt/dicionario/almadafranciscov.html">Francisco Vaz d'Almada</a> published his account in 1625:</p><blockquote><p>jugos, que sao como graos, (<a href="http://www.archive.org/details/recordsofsouthea08theaiala">Vol. VIII</a>, p. 62)</p><p>jugos, which is like grain, (p. 131)</p></blockquote><p>Paul Hair's “Portuguese Contacts with the Bantu Languages of the Transkei, Natal and Southern Mozambique 1497-1650” (reprinted in the <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/isbn/0860786269">book</a> mentioned above) recognizes <i>jugo</i> as Swahili <i>njugu</i>. And indeed, <i>feijões jugos</i> 'jugo beans' refers to Bambara ground-nuts in Afro-Portuguese, as does <i>vielo</i>. The same evidence is repeated at the end of “Milho, Meixoeira and other Foodstuffs of the Sofala Garrison, 1505-1525” (also in the book and additionally <a href="http://www.persee.fr/showPage.do?urn=cea_0008-0055_1977_num_17_66_2460">online</a>).</p><p>Andrew Battell was a British sailor who lived in coastal Central Africa at the start of the 17th century, initially among the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imbangala">Imbangala</a>. His account was published in Purchas in 1625. Describing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loango">Loango</a> before 1607, he writes:</p><blockquote><p>They have very good Peason, somewhat bigger then ours: but they grow not as ours do. For the poddes grow on the rootes underneath the ground; and by their leaves they know when they be ripe. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=k7YLAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA405&vq=peason">p. 405</a> of the straight reprint; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=XlkMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA67">p. 67</a> of <a href="http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_George_Ravenstein">E. G. Ravenstein</a>'s edition with notes).</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03320b.htm">Capuchin</a> missionaries to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo">Congo</a> at the end of the 17th century adapted <i>nguba</i> to Italian phonology to come up with <i>incu[m]ba</i>. Father Girolamo Merolla da Sorrento narrated his tale to Angelo Piccardo and it was published in 1692 as <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/83160295"><i>Breue, e succinta relatione del viaggio nel regno di Congo</i></a>. Merolla (or his editor) was evidently aware of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Cavazzi_da_Montecuccolo">Giovanni Antonio Cavazzi</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/19905009">Istorica descrizione de' tre' regni Congo, Matamba et Angola</a></i>, composed around 1671, but published in 1687. (On Cavazzi's sources, see this <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0361-5413(1979)6<253:NLOCSD>2.0.CO;2-V">article</a>.) Neither of these Italian originals is online (or I do not know where to look). An English translation of Merolla, with many of the classical allusions removed and other abridgments, was published as part of A. and J. Churchill's<i> Collection of Voyages and Travels</i> and titled<i> <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/3689899">A voyage to Congo … in 1682</a></i>. Father <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Labat">Labat</a> translated Cavazzi in 1732, adding his own notes and observations, as <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/11204095">Relation Historique de l'Ethiopie occidentale contenant la description des royaumes du Congo, Angola, et Matamba</a></i>.<i> </i>The Portuguese <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/1179399">edition</a> of Cavazzi, which has notes and an index, is only <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=9dEqAAAAMAAJ&q=incuba&pgis=1#search">snippets</a>, and only volume 2. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=EH8UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32">Apparently</a> Cavazzi has a passage describing a missionary who failed after six years to discover any rules in the language of the Congo, but I cannot find this in Labat's translation.) Both works contain descriptions of several legumes, but the precise mapping is confusing. Merolla writes:</p><blockquote><p>Amongſt many others they eſteem, are the Mandois, which grow three of four together like vetches, but under-ground, and are about the bigneſs of an ordinary olive. From theſe milk is extracted, like to that drawn from almonds (in Italian Mandole), from whence, for aught I know, they had their name. There is another ſort of ground pulſe called Incumbe, which alſo grows under-ground, is like a muſquet-ball, and very wholeſome and well-taſted. Amongſt theſe, I and others have often found nutmegs, perhaps fallen from trees, the uſe of which is altogether unknown to theſe people. There are ſome wild ones found, which they call Neubanzampuni. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xiEnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA247&vq=mandois">p. 247</a> of Pinkerton's edition of Churchill's translation)</p></blockquote><p>And Labat:</p><blockquote><p>L'Incuba eſt une eſpece de petit pois, de couleur blanche, & aſſez difficile à cuire; parce qu'ils ſont fort durs. Ces fruits viennent ſous terre dans une eſpece de bourſe. J'en ai parlé dans le <i>voyage</i> de Guinée, ſous le nom de pois d'Angolle. La fleur de cette plante eſt jaune; elle a l'odeur de la violette. Ces pois étant bien cuits, ne laiſſent pas d'être bons, & d'avoir bon goût: on dit même qu'ils ſont amis de l'eſtomach.</p><p>Les Neuban zamputo reſſemblent beaucoup à nos noiſettes ſauvages, pour la figure & pour la goût. Ils ſe ſement aiſément, viennent, pour ainſi dire, ſans culture, produiſent beaucoup; & par cet endroit les Negres les eſtiment infiniment. C'eſt dans le Royaume de Congo, la nourriture la plus ordinaire des peuples. (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k84362z/f122.table">p. 116</a>)</p><p>Incuba is a kind of small pea, white in color, and as hard to cook because they are very hard. These fruit grow underground in a kind of purse. I spoke of them in <i>Voyage from Guinea</i>, under the name of Angola peas. The flower of this plant is yellow; it has the smell of a violet. These peas are well cooked, never fail to be good, and have a good taste: one could even say they are friends of the stomach.</p><p>The Neuban zamputo much resemble our wild hazelnuts, in shape and taste. They are planted easily and come up, so to speak, without tending, producing much; and in this place the Negroes esteem them infinitely. In the Kingdom of the Congo, it is the ordinary food of the people.</p></blockquote><p>Here is a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KYoVAAAAIAAJ&q=incuba+&pgis=1#search">snippet</a> of a paper trying to figure this out:</p><blockquote><p>Merolla (1682, p. 247) is the first to distinguish the two in the Congo, where they were called <i>mandois</i> and <i>incumbe</i>. Pere Labat (1732, p. 116) refers to two leguminous ground crops of Angola, <i>Neupan Zamputa</i>, the common food of the people and like a hazelnut, and <i>incuba</i> or ground pea or "<i>pois d'Angole</i>." <i>Mandois</i> and <i>Neupan Zamputu</i> probably refer to peanuts; here again the <i>Zamputu</i> refers to the land of the Portuguese and must mean the peanut was thought by the natives to have been introduced by the Portuguese. <i>Incuba</i> and <i>incumbe</i>, the <i>pois d'Angole</i>, refer to Voandzeia.</p></blockquote><p>On the other hand, <i>Pois d'Angole</i> normally refers to <a href="http://www.grainlegumes.com/aep/crops_species/tropical_grain_legumes/pigeon_pea">pigeon-pea</a>. Labat did indeed refer to them in <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/24189643"><i>Nouveau voyage aux isles de l'Amerique</i></a> (1722):</p><blockquote><p>Les Pois d'Angole ſont originaires du Royaume de ce nom ſur la côte d'Afrique, d'où ils ont été apportez aux Iſles par les vaiſſeaux qui vont chercher les Negres en ces quartiers là. Ils reſſemblent aſſez à nos petits feves, excepté pour le couleur; car ils ſont bruns, … (Vol. I, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k741010/f420.chemindefer">p. 361</a>)</p><p>Angola peas are originally from the Kingdom of that name on the coast of Africa, whence they were brought to the islands by the vessels which go to find Negroes in those quarters. They resemble our beans enough, except for color, since they are brown, …</p></blockquote><p>One of the most popular early 18th century accounts was <a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_Bosman">Willem Bosman</a>'s <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/20891824"><i>Nawkeurige Beschryving van de Guinese</i></a>, published in 1704 with a second <a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/65102420">edition</a> in 1709. There were English and <a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/20888026">French</a> translations in 1705 and a <a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/16395482">German</a> one in 1708. The English translation was included in Pinkerton's <i>Voyages</i>. (For details on the quality of the translation, see “Willem Bosman's ‘New and Accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea’: How Accurate Is It?” and the eight follow-on articles in <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0361-5413(1974)1<101:WB"AAD>2.0.CO;2-I">JSTOR</a>.) Bosman also reports three similar beans, with <i>-guba</i> now becoming <i>gobbe-gobbe</i>:</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur">Noch heeſt men hier een ſlag van </span>Boonen<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur">, </span>Gobbegobbes<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> genaemt / welke met twee te gelijk in </span>huiſjes<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> onder de </span>aerde<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> groeijen / en heel klein </span>loof<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> boven de </span>aerde<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> geeven. Dit ſijn onder al de </span>Boonen<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> d'alderſlegtſte; echter latenſe ſig noch al eeten.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur">De </span>tweede ſlag<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur">, even als de geſeide onder de </span>aerde<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> groeijende / ſijn by ons noch maer voor eenige jaren bekend geworden / en werden </span>Angoolſe Boontjes<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> genaemt / om datſe van daer na herwaerts ſijn overgebragt. 't Is een heel lekker en aengenaem eeten / als men deſelve / gelijk de </span>Kaſtagnes<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur">, in de </span>Pan<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> laet braden.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur">De l</span>aetſte ſlag<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> van </span>Boontjes<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur">, en meede onder de </span>aerde<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> waſſende / ſijn de alderbeſte; doch ſy konnen niet wel voor </span>Boonen<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> doorgaen / eenſdeels om datſe in geen </span>huiſjes<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> of </span>peulen<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> waſſen; en ten anderen ook / om datſe op ſo een manier niet gegeeten worden. Veel gevoeglijker ſou men deſelve </span>Aerdnooten<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> moogen noemen; want rauw uit de hand degeeten / ſijnſe van ſmaek onſe </span>Haſenooten<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> niet ſeer ongelijk; doch men doedſe gemeenlijk aen ſtukken wrijven / in't </span>water<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> weeken / en dan door een </span>doek<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> parſſen / welk </span>water<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> met </span>Rijs<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> gekookt hier te </span>Land<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> voor </span>Soetemelk<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> doorgaet; en men ſou het met'er een weinig </span>Suiker<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur">, </span>Kaneel<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> en </span>Boter<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> in te doen / de </span>onkundige<span style="font-family:Kleist-Fraktur"> daer voor konnen opdiſſen.</span> (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k104937r/f329.table">p. 80</a>)</p><p>Here is alſo another ſort called <i>Gobbe-gobbes</i>, which grows two together in a Cod under the Earth, and ſhoot out a ſmall Leaf above the ſurface of the Earth; theſe are the worſt of all the Beans, and yet they are eaten by ſeveral.</p><p>The ſecond ſort of ſubterraneous Beans, have been known to us but a few Years, and are called <i>Angola</i> Beans, by reaſon they were tranſplanted from thence to this place. They are a very agreeable ſort of Food, if fryed, as we commonly do Cheſ-nuts.</p><p>The laſt ſort, which alſo grow under the Earth, are the beſt of all; but indeed they can hardly paſs for Beans, partly becauſe they don't grow in Cods, and partly becauſe they are not eaten as the others are: So that Earth-nuts would be a more proper Name for them; for they are eaten raw out of the Hand, and taſte not much unlike Haſel-nuts. But they are commonly broken into pieces, ſoaked in Water, and then ſqueezed in a Cloath; this Liquor boiled with Rice, every where in this Country paſſes for Milk, and if helpt with a little Sugar, Cinamon and Butter, it would not eaſily be diſcovered to be anything elſe by thoſe who are unacquainted with this Diſh. (<a href="http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&d1=0289300500&srchtp=b&SU=All&c=1&d2=316&docNum=CW3301007668&d7=301&b0=bosman&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&b1=A0&d6=316&d3=1&ste=10&d4=0.33&stp=Author&n=10&d5=d6">p. 301</a>; Pinkerton's edition, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xiEnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA460&dq=gobbe-gobbes">p. 460</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nFQeAAAAIAAJ&q=gobbe&dq=gobbe&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=eEKBR4T-EYbktAPs3K24Cw&pgis=1">snippet</a> of 1967 annotated facsimile edition; equivalent <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k861877/f343.chemindefer">French</a>)</p></blockquote><p>In Wolof (<a href="http://www.wolofconnection.com/wolof/Language/Vocab/Vegetable.htm">illustrated food glossary</a>), <i>gerte</i> is 'peanut' and <i>gerte Bambara</i> is 'Bambara ground-nut' and perhaps the model for the English and similar European terms. This word appears in 18th century French accounts of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bambuk">Bambuk</a>. The details are a little confusing to me, however, because of incomplete access to sources and rampant plagiarism. The primary business of the <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compagnie_du_Sénégal">Senegal Company</a> was slaves, for which a fortified coastal settlement like the infamous <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorée">Gorée</a> island was sufficient, with the Wolof <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damel">Dammel</a> delivering them there. Yet an important sideline was gold and many still imagined <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soninke_Wangara">Wangara</a> as <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=jPENAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9&vq=Wang%C3%A2ra+l'or">described</a> by al-Idrisi. Among these was the company director <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_Brue">Andre Brüe</a>, who organized a series of expeditions to explore the mines in the interior. Father Labat acted as his publicist back in France. One such expedition was by a Sieur P. Compagnon in 1716. Another was Claude Boucard in 1729. A 1974 thesis by Yves Péhaut, redone as a book in 1976, gives a direct quote for Compagnon, as near as I can make out from what Google Books will show:</p><blockquote><p>Il croît dans le pays une espèce de pois que les noirs appellent Guerté et qui ressemble parfaitement à la pistache ; ils ont le goût de la noisette, surtout lorsqu'on a soin de les sécher au four pour leur faire jeter leur huile. Ce légume croît en terre au bout de sa … (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=JEsdAAAAIAAJ&q=guert%C3%A9+compagnon&pgis=1">snippet</a>; there are OCR errors, so search won't find all that, which also probably explains why search does not think the next word is <i>racine</i>; cf. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ol8jjEJG870C&pg=PA219&dq=guert%C3%A9+bambouk&sig=xfvd4z5HxUt9OUKpm-deR87k5gw">this</a>)</p><p>In the country grows a kind of pea which the Blacks call <i>gerte</i> and which resembles our pistachio perfectly; they have the taste of hazelnut, especially when taking care to dry them in an oven to make them give up their oil. This vegetable grows in the earth at the end of its …</p></blockquote><p>Since it is only a snippet, I cannot see the source for this. It does not seem to be part of Labat's account of Compagnon's voyage in <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/24788386">Nouvelle relation de l'Afrique occidentale</a></i> (Vol. IV, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103382f/f39.table">pp. 32-56</a>). Or as that reworked by Prévost (1746; Vol. II, Book. VI, Chap. 13, Para. 1, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2010257/f690.table">pp. 633-648</a>) or Walckenaer (1826; Vol. III, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=TOW0SJkKl4IC&pg=RA2-PA241">pp. 241-265</a>).</p><p>Boucard's account, “Relation de Bambouc,” is in an article that I was able to track down (<a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1753196">BIFAN</a> 36 (1974) pp. 246-275):</p><blockquote><p>… de mil de bled de Turquie, de riz, des pistaches et des pois. (p. 261; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=lp6eR6CQDYaUzATwybnICQ&as_brr=0&id=z44rAAAAIAAJ&q=pistaches&pgis=1">snippet</a>)</p><p>Il croît dans le Pays une espece de Poix que les Nègres appellent guerté parfaittement ressemblant aux pistaches. Ils ont le goust de la noisette, surtout lorsqu'on a soin de les faire Secher au feu pour leur faire rendre leur huile. Ces Pois excitent beaucoup l'appetit. Ce fruit croist dans la terre au bout de sa racine qui jette dehors une espece de feuilles tres vertes ressemblantes au trefle de France. Les Negres en mangent beaucoup; Ils le mettent avec leur mil, et ils s'en trouvent d'autant mieux que ce fruit concoure avec leur paresse, Car il suffit d'ensemencer une terre une seule fois pour recueiller trois recoltes pendt. trois années consecutives sans estre obligé d'y faire le moindre travail, excellente commodité pour des negres paresseux qui aiment mieux manquer du necessaire que de labourer leur terre pour estre dans l'abondance. Outre les pistaches les negres recueillent de gros poids ronds semblables pour le goust et pour la couleur aux feves de marais qui sont tres legeres cuisent tres bien surtout avec la viande. (p. 267; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=z44rAAAAIAAJ&q=guert%C3%A9&dq=guert%C3%A9&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=lp6eR6CQDYaUzATwybnICQ&pgis=1">snippet</a>)</p><p>… of cornmeal, of rice, of pistachios and of peas.</p><p>There grows in the country a sort of pea that the Negroes call <i>gerte</i>, perfectly resembling pistachios. They have the taste of hazelnuts, especially when care is taken to dry them in a fire to make them give up their oil. These peas excite the appetite much. This fruit grows in the land at the end of its root which casts out a kind of very green leaves resembling clover of France. The Negroes eat it much; they have it with their millet, and they find it even better that the fruit contributes to their laziness, because it is sufficient to sow the land one time to gather three times for three consecutive years without being obligated to do any work, a great convenience for the lazy Negroes who like to skip having to plough their land in order to be in abundance. In addition to the pistachios, the Negroes gather big round peas resembling small beans which are very light cooked well especially with meat.</p></blockquote><p>The text is obviously quite similar. The 1789 <a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/17871708"><i>Voyage au pays de Bambouc</i></a>, unsigned but believed to be by Charles-Pierre Coste d'Arnobat, explicitly claims (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k86191g/f4.pagination">p. 2</a>) that Compagnon did not make it to the interior and published lies. He includes an account that is again quite similar to the other two and often word-for-word the same.</p><blockquote><p>Il croit dans le pays une espece de pois que les noirs appellent Guerté, & qui ressemble parfaitement à nos pistaches; ils ont le goût de la noisette, surtout lorsqu'on a soin de les sécher au four, pour leur faire jeter leur huile. Ce legume excite beaucoup l'appétit, & croit dans la terre au bout de sa racine, qui pousse dehors une espece de feuille très verte, ressemblant au trefle de France. (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k86191g/f42.pagination">pp. 40-41</a>)</p></blockquote><p>According to the invaluable <a href="http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/AfricaFocus/AfricaFocus-idx?type=turn&entity=AfricaFocus.Fage01.p0093&isize=M&q1=Arnobat"><i>Guide to original sources for precolonial western Africa published in European languages</i></a> (that online scan isn't complete, but has the relevant page here), the Bambuk section is taken from Boucard, as it seems. It is somewhat less surprising that much the same text appears in <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-François_de_La_Harpe">Jean-François de La Harpe</a>'s 1820 <a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/123147411"><i>Abrégé de l'Histoire générale des voyages</i></a> (Vol. I, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3yo40yfTYWEC&pg=RA2-PA437&vq=guerte+pistaches+pois+arachide">pp. 437-438</a>), since it does not claim to be original. In the 1802 <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/11204233">Voyage en Afrique</a></i>, Golbéry describes roasted “pistachio pea”:</p><blockquote><p>elles produisent beaucoup d'espèces de pois, entr'autres le pois pistache qui, un peu grillé, a le goût de la noisette (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k82257m/f413.table">Vol. I, p. 406</a>)</p><p>they produce many kinds of peas, and among others the pistachio kind, which when a little parched, has the taste of filberts (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=SsINAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA297">Mudford</a>)</p></blockquote><p>And finally the 1814 <a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/11132144"><i>L'Afrique, ou Histoire, moeurs, usages et coutumes des africains : le Sénégal</i></a> by R. G. V. (René Geoffroy de Villeneuve) explicitly sources the word:</p><blockquote><p>… pistache de terre, en ouolof <i>guerté</i>, et l'usage à l'intérieur de cette même amande grillée. (Vol. IV, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=wcENAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA202&vq=guert%C3%A9">p. 201-202</a>)</p><p>… peanut, in Wolof <i>gerte</i>, and used in the interior the same as roasted almond.</p></blockquote><p>The phonetic similarity between <i>gerte</i> and <i>karite</i> is suggestive. And a paper “Note sur le Karité” by A. Leriche in Notes Africaines (No. 71, Jul. 1956; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WZMTAAAAIAAJ&q=guert%C3%A9&dq=guert%C3%A9&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=bSWxR73mIJvEzASi5bXODw">snippet</a>) proposes that they are the same, with Africans applying the existing word for the Shea butter nut to the newly encountered peanut, perhaps in an American context. Furthermore, he quotes <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Mauny">R. Mauny</a> as saying that the word <i>gerte</i> first appears in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Eusebio_Nieremberg">Juan Eusebio Nieremberg</a>'s 1635 <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/43125035">Historia naturæ maxime peregrinæ</a></i> (Book XIX, Chap. 103), as a word used by the Africans in the Americas. It should be easy to check to see what it says they applied the word to and where. Except that inexplicably the first natural history of the New World has not yet been scanned online. It is not an especially rare book; many libraries have a copy and could do so. The John Carter Brown Library at Brown <a href="http://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/pages/ea_hmpg.html">offers</a> some high-resolution individual pictures with a quirky Java applet interface. And a copy <a href="http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/earlyamericas/online/aftermath/aftermath3.html#object157">features</a> in a interactive display that opened at the Library of Congress the end of last year: <a href="http://www.prnewsnow.com/Public_Release/National/171431.html">apparently</a> one can use the virtual display to turn the pages. I do not know the details, but off hand, this sounds like a stand-alone kiosk, which would have been pretty cool in 1997; but in 2007 I do not see why it is not offered to everyone in the world. Moreover, I assume it just features a few pre-selected pages, which actually fails to impart the point of browsing through old books to the busloads of school fieldtrips that will see it, namely discovering moderately interesting things on one's own, not just visiting someone else's top-ten bookmarks, and that is now possible without risking anything other than a touch screen to grubby little fingers.</p><p>There are enough inconsistencies and loose ends in the last few sections that I suspect there has been more recent research to clear up. It takes time for the work of linguists and anthropologists to filter through historians into the prefaces to botanical / gardening books and cookbooks and popular accounts. And my informal searching around online and in the library of a good African Studies department can easily miss it. So, please comment if you know of something that should be revised.</p><p>In <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/9634695"><i>Histoire de Loango, Kakongo, et autres royaumes d'Afrique</i></a> (1776), Abbé <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=G2EMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT804&dq=Lievain+Bonaventure+Proyart">Lievain Bonaventure Proyart</a> described two “peas,” one called <i>pinda</i> and another one like it:</p><blockquote><p>Après le manioc il n'eſt rien que les Negres cultivent avec plus de ſoin qui la <i>pinda</i>, que nous appellons piſtache; c'eſt une eſpece de noiſette longue qui renferme deux amandes, ſous une gouſſe aſſez mince. Ce fruit ſe ſeme par ſillons: il pouſſe une tige qui reſſemble d'abord à celle du tréfle; mais il en ſort enſuite des filamens qui, après avoir rampé quelque temps ſur la terre, y entrent par le ſommet. La tige alors pouſſe une petite fleur jaune qui eſt ſtérile: c'eſt au bout des filamens qui ſont entrés dans la terre que ſe trouve le fruit en grande quantité. Il eſt fort bon au goût, mais indigeſte: on le fait griller avent de le manger. On le broie auſſi pour en faire une pâte qui ſert d'aſſaiſonnement aux ragoûts. On en exprime encore une huile aſſez délicate. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zi8QAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA16&vq=pinda">p. 16</a>)</p><p>Ils ont auſſi un pois de terre, dont la tige reſſemble à celle de notre fraiſier ſauvage; elle ſe traîne par terre comme celle de la <i>pinda</i>, & elle y entre par des filamens au bout deſquels ſe trouvent les pois; ils ſont agréable au goût, mais indigeſtes pour les eſtomachs Européens. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zi8QAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA18&vq=pinda">p. 18</a>)</p><p>Beſides the manioc, there is nothing which the Negroes cultivate with more care than the Pinda, which we call Piſtachio: it is a ſpecies of long nut, which incloſes two almonds under a very ſlender film. This fruit is ſown in furrows: it puts forth a ſtalk which at firſt reſembles that of the trefoil; but afterwards filaments ſhoot from it, which, after creeping ſome diſtance on the ſurface of the ground, penetrate into it by the ſummit. The ſtalk then ſhoots out a ſmall yellow flower, which does not fructify: it is at the end of the filaments which have entered the earth that the fruit is found in great quantities. It is very good to the taſte, but is indigeſtible; they have it broiled before they eat it. They alſo bruiſe it in order to make a paſte, which ſerves as a ſeaſoning for their ragouts. They expreſs from it a tolerably delicate oil. (tr. Pinkerton, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xiEnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA551&vq=pinda">p. 551</a>)</p><p>They have alſo an earth pea, the ſtalk of which reſembles that of our wild ſtrawberry plant; it trails along the ground like that of the Pinda, and it enters by filaments, at the ends of which the peas are found; they are agreeable to the taſte, but indigeſtible in European ſtomachs. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xiEnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552&vq=pinda">p. 552</a>)</p></blockquote><p>That translation is one of the quotations in the OED entry for <i>pindar</i>, an early English word for 'peanut'. The first from the minutes of the Aug. 5, 1684 Meeting of the Oxford Philosophical Society, as collected in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_T._Gunther">Robert T. Gunther</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/2655803">Early Science in Oxford</a></i> (a fourteen volume work mostly found in reference libraries, though serious scientific instrument collectors do have a copy of his <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/776631">Astrolabes</a></i> book):</p><blockquote><p>Dr. Plot presented ye Society with some of ye <i>Pindes</i>, from ye Coast of Guinea; of which Substance the Inhabitants make their bread, and severall meats; it seems to be a round seed: (Vol. IV, p. 83)</p></blockquote><p>The other before 1700 is from John Ovington's <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/9571011">A Voyage to Suratt in the Year 1689</a></i> (1696):</p><blockquote><p>Sometimes they Feaſt with a little Fiſh, and that with a few Pindars is eſteemed a ſplendid Banquet. Theſe Pindars are ſown under ground, and grow there without ſprouting above the ſurface, the Cod in which they are Incloſed is an Inch long, like that of our Peaſe and Beans, and they are eat with Beef or Pork inſtead of Beans or Peaſe. Some of theſe I brought for <i>England</i>, which were ſown in the Biſhop of <i>London</i>'s Garden, but whether they will thrive in this Climate is yet uncertain. (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:43688:47">p. 77</a>)</p></blockquote><p>In 1792, 275 English colonists established a settlement on the uninhabited island of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolama">Bulama</a>, off the coast of Portuguese Guinea, but considered by the British part of Sierra Leone. Though none of the settlers were freed slaves, it was meant as a rival to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Company">Freetown</a> effort, with even more utopian principles. The colony was a complete disaster: the details were ill-conceived and the colonists ill-prepared; in fact, probably none of them had any business being a colonist, except the governor, the Navy Lieutenant <a href="http://www.pdavis.nl/ShowBiog.php?id=10">Philip Beaver</a>. (Google Books will probably let you read the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hsrSSExnV3EC&pg=PA63&vq=bulama&dq=bulama&sig=4lZA-KMvOb3bGPjlaggRfIspOpk">essay</a>, “Bulama and Sierra Leone” by <a href="http://www.culture-communication.unimelb.edu.au/people/deirdre-coleman.html">Deirdre Coleman</a>; she also has a <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/aus/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521632133&ss=ind">book</a> on the bigger social context. What amounts to a prospectus, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=dsANAAAAQAAJ"><i>An Essay on Colonization</i></a>, is also available; don't miss the house designs near the end, to which linking is hard without page numbers. As usual, a contemporary <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=jfj7GAAACAAJ">history</a> is bizarrely with no preview allowed.) Beaver published his account of the ill-fated colony as <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KcANAAAAQAAJ">African Memoranda</a></i>. He is careful to distinguish between “ground nuts” (peanuts) and “ground peas” (Bambara ground-nuts, <i>mancara</i>):</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Maize</span>, or <span style="font-variant:small-caps">Indian Corn</span>, and ground nuts, are also consumed in considerable quantities, though the latter is more particularly confined to the Bijuga islands, where there is also a ground pea, peculiar to that cluster, which forms a considerable portion of the nourishment of its natives. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KcANAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA347&vq=ground+nuts+pea">p. 347</a>)</p><p>Country peas, these peas resemble those of Europe in shape and colour, but are about twice the size, they grow not in pods, but in the ground, and are propagated in the same manner as potatoes and ground nuts, indeed these are called the ground nuts (mancara) of the Bijugas, as those I procured from Tombaly are called the ground nuts (mancara) of the Mandingos and Naloos; (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KcANAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA484&vq=mancara+ground+nuts+peas">p. 484)</a></p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton">Richard Francis Burton</a>'s remark on the colony is classic Burton:</p><blockquote><p>Here, about 350 miles north of Sierra Leone, was established the unfortunate Bulama colony. Its first and last governor, the redoubtable Captain Philip Beaver, R.N., has left the queerest description of the place and its people. Within eighteen months only six remained of 269 souls, including women and children. In 1792 the island was abandoned, despite its wealth of ground-nuts. (<i>To the Gold Coast for Gold</i>, Vol. I, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=fgQNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA304&vq=Bulama">p. 304</a>)</p></blockquote><p>One suspects that they had more problems than just a lack of peanuts. Of course, Burton found peanuts wherever he went and usually had something interesting to say.</p><ul><li>In the <i>Camaroons</i> (Vol I):<br><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pYQLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA132&vq=ground-nuts+pindar+pistache+arachide">p. 132</a>: “ground-nuts or pindar, the <i>pistache</i> of the old French travellers, and now called <i>arachide</i>.”<br><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pYQLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA255&vq=voiandzeia">p. 255</a>: “I recognized, for the first time, the Njugu ya mawe (<i>Voiandzeia subterranea</i>) [sic] of East Africa, which is there regarded as the tiger-nut of the western regions.”<br><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pYQLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA321&vq=arachis+African+American">p. 321</a>: “We cannot however as yet answer the question whether maize and the arachis be African or purely American growths.”</li><li>In the <i>Congo</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=o81P7t2MQBIC&pg=PA158&vq=arachis+ground-nut+pindar+pinda">Vol I</a>):<br>“The ground-nut or peanut (<i>Arachis hypogæa</i>), the ‘pindar’ of the United States, a word derived from Loango, is eaten roasted, and, as a rule, the people have not learned to express its oil. Proyart (Pinkerton, xvi. 551) gives, probably by misprint, ‘Pinda, which we call Pistachio.’”</li><li>Vol. II, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vbwMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA106&vq=ground-nut+jinguba+nguba+incumba">p. 106</a>: “The staple of commerce is now the nguba, or ground-nut (plural, jinguba), which Merolla calls incumba, …”<br><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vbwMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA247&vq=ground-nuts+peppers+chindungwa">pp. 247-248</a>: “The national dish, ‘chindungwa,‘ would test the mouth of any curry-eater in the world: it is composed of boiled ground-nuts and red peppers in equal proportions, pounded separately in wooden mortars, mixed and squeezed to drain off the oil; the hard mass, flavoured with salt or honey, will keep for weeks.” Hmm. Spicy peanuts. I have not seen a similarly named recipe anywhere else.</li><li>In <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=7KSk81lUKacC&pg=PA181&vq=ground-nuts">Dahome</a></i>, “Similarly King Gezo stringently prohibited the growth of ground-nuts, except for purely domestic purposes.”</li><li>To the <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=fgQNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA301&dq=arachis+ground-nut+pea-nut">Gold Coast</a></i>:<br>“But the staple export from Bathurst—in fact, nine-tenths of the total—consists of the arachide, pistache, pea-nut, or ground-nut (<i>Arachis hypogæa</i>). It is the best quality known to West Africa; and, beginning some half a century ago, large quantities are shipped for Marseilles, to assist in making salad-oil. Why this ‘olive-oil’ has not been largely manufactured in England I cannot say. Thus the French have monopolised the traffic of the Gambia; they have five houses, and the three English, Messrs. Brown, Goddard, and Topp, export their purchases in French bottoms to French ports.”</li><li>In the <i>Lake Regions</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=bMwcAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA147&vq=voiandzeia+arachis">Vol. I</a>):<br>“… voiandzeia, bajri, beans, and that <i>Arachis hypogæa</i>. The latter is called by the Arabs sumbul el sibal, or “monkey's spikenard;” on the coast, njugu ya nyassa; in Unyamwezi, karanga or k'haranga, and farther west, mayowwa or mwanza. It is the bhuiphali, or “earth-fruit” of India, and the bik'han of Maharatta land, where it is used by cheap confectioners in the place of almonds, whose taste it simulates. Our older Cape travelers term it the pig-nut. The plant extends itself along the surface of the ground, and puts forth its fruit at intervals below. It is sown before the rains, and ripens after six months—in the interior about June. The Arabs fry it with cream that has been slightly salted, and employ it in a variety of rich dishes; it affords them also a favorite oil. The Africans use it principally on journeys.”<br>سنبل السبال <i>sunbul al-sibāl</i> sounds like it ought to mean 'mustache spikenard' to me. For names in India, see below.</li><li>(<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=S78NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52&vq=ukaranga+groundnuts">Vol. II</a>), he proposes that U-Karanga, the land of the Mo-Karanga (a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shona_people">Shona</a> tribe), is 'Peanut-Land', based on words such as Swahili <i>karanga</i> '(roasted) peanut'. The raises some problems, because it seems unlikely that a toponym would include something so recently introduced. See, for instance, the discussion in <i>Portuguese Vocables in Asiatic Languages</i>, s.v. <i>pinda</i> (p. 287; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3qk-p5hKuccC&pg=PA287&vq=U-Karanga&source=gbs_search_r&cad=0_2&sig=-l5sg6IgH9WNv0AcfH10bWDDZR0">preview</a>; the entire <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/portuguesevocabl033463mbp">book</a> is in the Internet Archive), or in <a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/7078277"><i>Plantas úteis da África portuguesa</i></a>, s.v. <i>jinguba</i> (p. 134). The solution of the Bambara ground-nut does not seem to work, since <i>karanga</i> and related forms only mean 'peanut'.</li><li>In <i>West Africa</i> (Vol. I):<br><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=McwNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA184&vq=ground-nut#PPA185,M1">pp. 184-185</a>: “The commerce of the place consists principally of the ground-nut (<i>A. hypogæa</i>) … The French at Senegal have drawn away the ground-nut: they have squeezed the orange, and they have left us the peel.”<br><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=McwNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA240&vq=ground-nut+horses+fodder">p. 240</a>: “The best fodder [for horses at Sierra Leone] is the ground-nut leaf, …”</li><li>In <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=n0FCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA248&vq=ground-nut">Zanzibar</a></i>, “Curious to say, the ground-nut, which extends from Unyamwezi to the Gambia, is rare at Zanzibar.”</li><li>In <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UwcNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA300&vq=ground-nuts+mandubi">Brazil</a></i>, “ground-nuts (Arachis hypogæa, here known as Mandubi, Mundubi, or Manobi), …”</li><li>In <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VtwFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=arachis+olive+vegetarian+army">Paraguay</a></i>, “The Paraguayan is eminently a vegetarian, … He sickens under a meat diet; hence, to some extent, the terrible losses of the army in the field. … His principal carbonaceous food is oil of ‘mani’—the Arachis, here the succedaneum for the olive.”</li><li>In translating <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=7cANAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA42&dq=jugo+amendoim+ground-nuts">Lacerda</a></i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4c0HAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=jugo+amendoim">original</a>), he seems to miss that “jugo (especie de feijão carrapato)” 'a kind of tick bean' is <i>njugu</i> (see above) and comes up with, “a small haricot like the ricinus.”</li><li>A Yoruba <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VnsQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA197&vq=ground-nut">proverb</a>:<br>“<b>Dolumo ekpa li oron sese, a dzebi oran wo ti.<br></b>The slander of the ground-nut (<i>a hypogæa</i>) against the white field-pea (<i>a climbing bean</i>) falls upon itself: he who is in the wrong must sit quietly apart.”</li></ul><p>I rather thought that I would run into a many more peanut-related proverbs, since this is an important part of traditional cultures and similar colonial-era collections have been digitized. But I only came up with a couple. Héli Chatelain's (bits of a biography <a href="http://pages.unibas.ch/afrika/nocolonies/birmingham.paper.rtf">here</a>: warning, though, it's an .rtf file) <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/913817">Kimbundu Grammar</a></i> has one:</p><blockquote><p>Nguba kabu boxi, mulonga kabuê ku muxima. (p. 132; similar versions <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=XC8OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA116">here</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zywOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&vq=nguba">here</a>, and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=rN43AAAAIAAJ&q=Nguba+boxi,+mulonga++ku+muxima.&dq=Nguba+boxi,+mulonga++ku+muxima.&ei=AUyyR7LmHJG0yQTes8m9DQ&pgis=1">here</a>)</p><p>A groundnut does not rot in the ground, a word does not vanish in the heart. (tr. Torrend)</p></blockquote><p>An <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-9720(197004)40:2<151:TPAAMO>2.0.CO;2-3">article</a> in JSTOR by <a href="http://www.haroldbergsma.com/">Harold M. Bergsma</a> offers one in Tiv:</p><blockquote><p>U too akombo sha abun sha, hanma or kpaa nana ya.</p><p>If you remove the protective emblem from the peanut [<i>abun</i>] (patch) anyone can eat the peanuts.</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Clive_Abraham">Roy Clive Abraham</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/7056878">Dictionary of Modern Yoruba</a></i> has a riddle:</p><blockquote><p style="font-family:Code2000">a ṣí igbá pìrí a bá igba ẹẏìn</p></blockquote><p>No translation is given, but I think it means 'open the calabash and there's an egg'. The answer is <i style="font-family:Code2000">ẹ̀pà</i> 'peanut'. I have gone with the dot-below rather than the line-below here and above, since it is better supported by Unicode fonts. I do happen to have a copy of <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/1065043">Yoruba Orthography</a></i> by Ayọ Bamgboṣe, mentioned in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_language#Writing_system">Wikipedia</a>, and on this he says:</p><blockquote><p>The vowel sounds in the words <i style="font-family:Code2000">ọkọ</i> "husband" and <i style="font-family:Code2000">ẹsẹ̀</i> "foot" are usually represented in writing as <i style="font-family:Code2000">ọ</i>, <i style="font-family:Code2000">ẹ</i>. But they are also sometimes represented as <i style="font-family:Code2000">o̩</i>, <i style="font-family:Code2000">e̩</i>. The latter spelling is preferred by some people because it is easier to underline the letters without destroying the vertical bar. It is also suggested by some that whereas it is easier to omit the dot, you cannot easily omit the bar. This is doubtful speculation. Afterall, the letter <i style="font-family:Code2000">i</i> is always dotted on top. Why is it easier to omit a lower dot and not an upper one? It seems to me that the only valid point in favour of the bar is the first one. The dot is destroyed by underlining the letters, but it is the convention most widely used. Whichever spelling one adopts will not matter much. In fact, perhaps it may be better to retain the two as alternatives. (pp. 7-8; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=L-QNAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Whichever+spelling+one+adopts+will+not+matter+much.%22&pgis=1">snippet</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The peanut was part of the plantation economy. It is listed among the foods for slaves in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=AM0NAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA121&vq=earth-nut">Mauritius</a>. Likewise in the Western Hemisphere. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gabriel_Stedman">John Gabriel Stedman</a>, writing of his observations in Surinam on a 1772-1777 military expedition against a revolt by African slaves, says:</p><blockquote><p>There were also nuts of two species, usually called pistachios, and by the negroes <i>pinda</i>; one kind of them resembled small chestnuts, and these grow in bunches on a tree. The others are produced by a shrub, and grow under ground; both have sweet oily kernels: of the last there are two in one pod; they are agreeable eating raw, but still better when roasted in hot aſhes. (<i><a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/13966308">Narrative</a></i>, Vol. II, Chap. 19, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=V5MBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA76&vq=pistachio|pinda">p. 76</a>)</p></blockquote><p>and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blake">William Blake</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=V5MBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA76-IA1">illustrates</a> “the ground pistachio in its dried state” and “one of the kernels belonging to the latter.”</p><p>Michel Étienne Descourtilz likewise <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WhkAAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA2-PA128">illustrates</a> a peanut plant and writes:</p><blockquote><p>Cette plante utile, originaire d'Afrique, a été transportée aux Antilles, au Brésil, à Suriname, au Pérou; (<i><a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/23116174">Flore des Antilles</a></i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WhkAAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA2-PA132">p. 160</a>)</p><p>This useful plant, originally from Africa, has been transported to the Antilles, Brazil, Surinam, and Peru;</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Sloane">Hans Sloane</a>, in his <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/9885090">Catalogus Plantarum quæ in Insula Jamaica</a></i> (1696), under “Arachidna Indiæ utriſque tetraphylla” briefly catalogs most of the earlier mentions (covered in the previous post) and glosses it, “<i>Earth Nuts or Pindalls</i>.” (in Botanicus: pp. <a href="http://www.botanicus.org/page/406188">72</a>-73, <a href="http://www.botanicus.org/page/406337">221</a>; the scans in EEBO aren't much better: <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:44319:41">72</a>, <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:44319:116">221</a>). In his subsequent <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/3683232">Natural History of Jamaica</a></i> (1707-1725), he is less telegraphic in his botanical summaries and paints a gruesome picture of how the nuts are used:</p><blockquote><p>I ſaw in this Harbour and Bay a Ship come from <i>Guinea</i>, loaded with Blacks to ſell. The Ship was very naſty with ſo many People on Board. I was aſſured that the <i>Negroes</i> feed on Pindals, or <i>Indian</i> Earth-Nuts, a ſort of Pea or Bean producing its Pods under ground. Coming from <i>Guinea</i> hither, they are fed on theſe Nuts, or <i>Indian</i>-Corn boil'd whole twice a day, a eight a Clock, and four in the Afternoon, each having a Pint of Water allow'd him. The <i>Negroes</i> from <i>Angola</i> and <i>Gamba</i>, are not troubled with Worms, but thoſe from the Gold Coaſt very much. (Introduction, <a href="http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&d1=0487300101&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRH&df=f&s1=pindals&d2=87&docNum=CW3301368821&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=87&d3=87&ste=10&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T100752">p. lxxiii</a>)</p><p>XXII. <i>Arachidna Indiæ utriſque tetraphylla. Par. Bat. pr. Cat. p. 72. Mandobi fructus piſonis Mus. Swammerd. p. 15. An Terfez. Ogilb. Africa. p. 22 ?</i></p><p>I found this planted, from <i>Guinea</i> Seed, by Mr. <i>Harriſon</i>, in his Garden in <i>Liguanee</i>.</p><p>The Fruit, which are call'd by Seamen Earth-Nuts, are brought from <i>Guinea</i> in the <i>Negroes</i> Ships, to feed the <i>Negroes</i> withal in their Voyage from <i>Guinea</i> to <i>Jamaica</i>.</p><p>They are windy and Venereal. <i>Piſo</i>.</p><p>If eaten much they cauſe the Head-ach. <i>Marcgr</i>.</p><p>An Oil is drawn out of them by Expreſſion, as good as that of Almonds.</p><p>If they are beaten and made into a Poulteſs, they take away the pain of Serpents bites. <i>Du Tertre</i>.</p><p>This is the Nut <i>Cluſius</i> ſpeaks of, wherewith the <i>Portugueſe</i> Victual their Slaves to be carried from St. <i>Thome</i> to <i>Lisbon</i>. (<a href="http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&d1=0487300101&srchtp=a&SU=0LRH&c=1&df=f&d2=358&docNum=CW3301369092&d7=184&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=358&d3=176&ste=10&d4=0.33&stp=Author&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T100752">p. 184</a>)</p></blockquote><p>It is worth nothing that on the same page he mentions, “white Peaſe, ſomething reſembling a Kidney, with a black Eye,” and elsewhere <i>Seſamum</i> (<a href="http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&d1=0487300101&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRH&df=f&d2=335&docNum=CW3301369069&d7=161&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=335&d3=358&ste=10&d4=0.33&stp=Author&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T100752">p. 161</a>) and Ocra (<a href="http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&d1=0487300101&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRH&df=f&d2=396&docNum=CW3301369130&d7=222&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=396&d3=335&ste=10&d4=0.33&stp=Author&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T100752">p. 222</a>), other food plants brought by African slaves.</p><p>Similarly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Browne">Patrick Browne</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/20550481">Natural History of Jamaica</a></i> (1756):</p><blockquote><p>ARACHIS I. <i>Tetraphylla, ſiliquas infra terram recondens</i>; <i>ſeminibus oblongis</i>.<br>Arachidna. Plum. t. 36.<br>Arachis. Gen. & L. Sp. Pl.<br>Arachidna <i>utriuſque Indiæ</i>, &c. Slo. Cat. 72.<br>Sena <i>tetraphylla, ſeu apſi</i> congener <i>folliculos condens</i>, &c. Pk. t. 60. f. 2</p><p><i>Pindar's</i>, or Ground-Nuts.</p><p>The ſeeds of this plant are frequently imported to <i>Jamaica</i>, in the ſhips from <i>Africa</i>; and ſometimes cultivated there, though it is but very rarely, and in very ſmall quantities. It thrives beſt in free ſoil, and warm ſituation; and would grow very well in many parts of that iſland, was it regularly cultivated. (<a href="http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&d1=1261200200&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRH&df=f&d2=376&docNum=CW3325436931&d7=295&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=376&d3=295&ste=10&d4=0.33&stp=Author&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T089758">p. 295</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The work <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/11320743">Hortus Americanus</a></i>, received by Sloane in 1711, and believed to be by <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZCwJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA186&dq=henry+barham">Henry Barham</a>, though published in 1794 as the work of his son, says:</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Pindalls</span>.</p><p>The firſt I ever ſaw of theſe growing was in a negro's plantation, who affirmed, that they grew in great plenty in their country; and they now grow very well in Jamaica. Some call them gub-a-gubs; and others ground-nuts, becauſe the nut of them, of fruit that is to be eaten, grows in the ground: Theſe are of the bigneſs, colour, and ſhape, of a filbert; they are covered over in the ground with a thin ciſtus or ſkin, which contains two or three of them, and many of the ciſtuſes, with their nuts of kernels, are to be found growing to the root of one plant. When they are ripe and fit to dig up, the ciſtus that contains them is dry, like a withered leaf, which you take off, and then have a kernel, reddiſh without-ſide and very white within, taſting like an almond, and accounted by ſome as good a a piſtachio; they are very nouriſhing, and accounted provocatives. Some ſay, if eaten much, they cauſe the head-ache; but I never knew any ſuch effect, even by thoſe who chiefly lived upon them; for maſters of ſhips often feed negroes with them all their voyage; and I have very often eat of them plentifully, and with pleaſure, and never found that effect. They may be eaten raw, roaſted, or boiled. They oil drawn from them by expreſſion is as good as oil of almonds; and the nut, beaten and applied as a poultice, takes away the ſting of ſcorpions, waſps, or bees. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=TU4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA145&vq=pindalls+ground-nuts">pp. 145-146</a>)</p></blockquote><p>And <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Long">Edward Long</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/79086002">History of Jamaica</a></i> (1774):</p><blockquote><p>133. <span style="font-variant:small-caps">Pindals, or ground-nuts—</span><i>Arachis</i>.</p><p>The plant, which produces theſe nuts, was firſt brought from Africa.</p><p>They reſemble a filbert in colour, ſhape, and ſize. They are found in the earth, environed with a thin ciſta, which contains two or three kernels, and ſeveral of theſe bags are ſeen adhering to the roots of one plant. When ripe, and fit to dig, the covering, in which they are contained, appears dry, like a withered leaf; this being taken off, the kernels, or nuts, are immediately diſcloſed to view, reddiſh on their outſide, but very white within. They have ſomewhat of the almond flavour, but more of the cheſtnut; ſome think them equal to the piſtachia. They are nouriſhing, and often given as food to Negroes on voyages from Guiney, where they paſs under the name of <i>gubagubs</i>. They may be eaten raw, roaſted, or boiled. The plant thrives beſt in a free ſoil, and warm ſituation. In Southern climes vaſt crops of theſe nuts are ſaid to be produced from light, ſandy, and indifferent ſoils. Doctor <i>Brownrigg</i>, of <i>North Carolina</i>, tranſmitted ſome account of the value of theſe nuts to the Royal Society. From a quantity of them, firſt bruiſed, and put into canvas bags, he expreſſed a pure, clear, well-taſted oil, uſeful for the ſame purpoſes, as the oils of olives and almonds.</p><p>From ſpecimens both of the ſeeds and oil, produced before the Society, it appeared, that neither of them was ſubject to turn rancid by keeping. The oil in particular, which had been ſent from Carolina eight months before, without any extraordinary care, and had undergone the heat of the ſummer, remained perfectly ſweet and good. A buſhel of them yielded (in Carolina) without heat, one gallon of oil, and with heat, a much larger quantity, <i>but of inferior quality</i>. It has been juſtly ſuppoſed, that, from a ſucceſsful proſecution of this manufacture, the colonies may not only be able to ſupply their own conſumption, in lieu of olive oil annually imported from Europe, but even make it a conſiderable article of their export.</p><p>The nuts bruiſed, and applied in form of a poultice, take away inflammations, cauſed by venomous ſtings of bees, ſcorpions, waſps, &c. (Book III, Chap. 8, <a href="http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&d1=0565600103&srchtp=b&SU=All&c=1&df=f&d2=204&docNum=CW3302586139&b0=gubagubs&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&b1=0X&d6=204&d3=204&ste=10&d4=0.33&stp=Author&n=10&d5=d6">pp. 788-789</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Some works suppose that peanuts are native to Jamaica, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan_Edwards">Bryan Edwards</a>' <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=DFomAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA187&dq=pindal">History of the West Indies</a></i> (1793), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Dallas">Robert Charles Dallas</a>' <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VccCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR88&dq=pindal">History of the Maroons</a></i> (1803), Robert Renny's <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=jr4NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA86&dq=pindal">History of Jamaica</a></i> (1807) or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Coke_(bishop)">Thomas Coke</a>'s <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=jsENAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA375&dq=pindal">History of the West Indies</a></i> (texts that are obviously copying one another, though I am not sure exactly how).</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Thoresby">Ralph Thoresby</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/6123859">Ducatus Leodiensis</a></i> (1715), in the catalog of plants in his Leeds Wunderkammer, includes:</p><blockquote><p><i>Arachidna Indiæ utriſq; tetraphylla</i>, Earth-nuts or <i>Pindalls</i>; they are brought from Guinea to feed the Negroes with in their Voyage from thence to <i>Jamaica</i>. (<a href="http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&d1=0953200100&srchtp=b&SU=All&c=1&df=f&d2=487&docNum=CW3303054692&b0=pindalls&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&b1=0X&d6=487&d3=487&ste=10&d4=0.33&stp=Author&n=10&d5=d6">pp. 448-449</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Moving further North, it must be kept in mind that some English terms, and in particular <i>ground-nut</i>, meant a variety of plants. Roy Johnson, in his <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/4867869">The Peanut Story</a></i>, points this out for Colonial descriptions, but then falls into the trap himself, quoting <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lawson">Lawson</a>'s History of Carolina for 1701, “Goose, Venison, Raccoon and ground Nuts,” (<a href="http://docsouth.unc.edu/nc/lawson/lawson.html#p16">p. 16</a>) and then claims, “The explorer makes no further mention of peanuts,” which is incorrect, as Lawson later says, “Ground-Nuts, or wild Potato's,” (<a href="http://docsouth.unc.edu/nc/lawson/lawson.html#p178">p. 178</a>) making it clear that <i>Apios</i> is meant. Likewise Johnson's incomplete reference to Gosnold off the coast of Virginia in 1602, who is in fact reported finding, “Ground nuts as big as egges, as good as Potatoes, and 40. on a ſtring, not two ynches vnder ground.” (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Smith_of_Jamestown">Smith</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/6721416">Virginia</a></i>, p. <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:12162:17">17</a>; also in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3B0nAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA20&lpg=PA20&dq=%22ground+nuts%22">Pinkerton</a>)</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Romans">Bernard Romans</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/6739868">Concise Natural History of East and West Florida</a></i> (1775) includes:</p><blockquote><p>XII. The <i>ground nut</i> alſo introduced by the Blacks from <i>Guinea</i>, is next after this for its eaſy cultivation, a good kind of oil that does not ſoon go rancid, and the great quantity it yields; but the earth does not produce the ſeed in ſuch plenty as the laſt [<i>Seſamen</i>], and it takes up more room. (p. 131; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=hutLAAAAMAAJ&q=%22ground+nut%22&ei=ns6pR5K4MoG-sgPV3qypCg&pgis=1">snippet</a>; in Early American Imprints : Evans, no. 14440 but deep linking does not work, so search by Document Number and go that page)</p></blockquote><p>Writing of North Carolina in his 1789 <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/14101186">American Geography</a></i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jedidiah_Morse">Jedidiah Morse</a> says:</p><blockquote><p>Ground peas run on the ſurface of the earth, and are covered by hand with a light mould, and the pods grow under ground. They are eaten raw or roaſted, and taſte much like a hazelnut. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PUcMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA414&dq=%22ground+peas%22">p. 414</a> from the 1792 edition, which is identical here; Evans no. 21978)</p></blockquote><p>As mentioned by Long, in late 1769, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Watson_(scientist)">William Watson</a> wrote a letter to the Royal Society on some peanuts and peanut oil received from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edenton,_North_Carolina">Edenton, North Carolina</a>:</p><blockquote><p>It is with this view, that I lay before you ſome pods of a vegetable, and the oil preſſed from their contents. They were ſent from Edenton, in North Carolina, by Mr. George Brownrigg, whoſe brother Dr. Brownrigg, is a worthy member of our ſociety; and are the produce of a plant well known, and much cultivated, in the ſouthern colonies, and in our American ſugar iſlands, where they are called ground nuts, or ground peaſe. They are originally, it is preſumed, of the growth of Africa, and brought from thence by the negroes, who uſe them as food, both raw and roaſted, and are very fond of them. They are therefore cultivated by them in the little parcels of land ſet apart for their uſe by their maſters. By theſe means, this plant has extended itſelf, not only to our warmer American ſettlements, but it is cultivated in Surinam, Braſil, and Peru. (<i>Annual Register</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cXIEAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA3-PA109&dq=arachis"><i>p</i>. 109</a>; <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, Vol. 59, pp. 379-383, in <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0260-7085(1769)59<379:SAOAOT>2.0.CO;2-#">JSTOR</a>)</p></blockquote><p>In his <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/62708546">Notes on the State of Virginia</a></i>, written in 1781 and revised in 1782, Thomas Jefferson mentions cultivating, “ground nuts (Arachis)” (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=NgKidsPa_QoC&pg=PA39&dq=arachis">p. 39</a> of this later reprint). They appear in his garden book for 1794 as Peendars (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=kDZy5EovSc4C&pg=PA213&vq=arachis&sig=izHP9CCIjeLnv2u8-FF9hcikeLg">preview</a>). A <a href="http://www.geocities.com/irby.geo/gw/gsl.html">shopping list</a> of George Washington's included, “Half a bushl. or bushel of the Ground Pease, or Pindars as they are called” (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=i_k7AAAAIAAJ&q=ground+pease+pindars&pgis=1#search">snippet</a>). In the 1806 <i>American Gardener's Calendar</i>, Bernard McMahon includes peanuts in the kitchen garden. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8zJAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA581&vq=ground-nut">p. 581</a>)</p><p>Two Southern American English words for 'peanut' are from Bantu languages: <i>pindar</i> and <i>goober</i>. The specific etymologies given are usually those in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenzo_Dow_Turner">Lorenzo D. Turner</a>'s classic <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/790815">Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect</a></i>: Kikongo <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2oZ5mHkg1QgC&pg=PA199&vq=peanut&lr=&sig=NBRfdw2XaQEsouf1fhjr8jRPTa4">mpinda</a></i> and Kimbundu <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2oZ5mHkg1QgC&pg=PA194&vq=peanut&lr=&sig=Gv7G09VfAEd66HoqarB1G6etLyY">ŋguba</a></i>, respectively. <i>pindar</i> (<i>pindal[l]</i>, <i>pinda</i>, <i>pinder</i>, Gullah <i>'pinda</i>) < <i>-pinda</i> (s. <i>mpinda</i>, pl. <i>zimpinda</i>) was one of the usual Colonial words, as seen above, but is now strictly regional (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=i33BWgxbvXgC&pg=PA159&vq=pindar+peanut&sig=jxiXg9drXOKOe5E3T-jYnY8yEBs">DARE</a>). Since it was used more generally earlier, it may not have been borrowed in an American context. <i>goober</i> (<i>gouber</i>, Gullah <i>'guba</i>) < <i>-gúba</i> (s. <i>lunguba</i>, pl. <i>jinguba</i>) is recognized even in the North in <i>goober pea</i> and as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goober_Pyle">Gomer's brother</a> and the name of a <a href="http://www.nestleclassics.com/product_goobers.asp">candy</a>. In some dialects of Kikongo, <i>nguba</i> (pl. <i>zinguba</i>) also means 'kidney' due to the resemblance. <i>ginguba</i> is 'peanut' in Angolan Portuguese. Bosman's <i>gobbe-gobbes</i> is the same as <i>guba</i>, as noted above and discussed in <i>American Notes and Queries</i> for 5 Jan, 1889 (p. 120; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=l7kEAAAAYAAJ&q=gobbe-gobbes&ei=KjCtR6X6H5XOywToxpSeBg&pgis=1">snippet</a>; entire volume in the <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/americannotesque02philuoft">Internet Archive</a>). So too <i>gubagubs</i> in Jamaica. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cMARCr6HoB4C&pg=PA318&dq=gobo-gobo+saramakan&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=d0CrR8_kCYaUzASFmPDxAw&sig=FHGx9je-7JXI4eLaobo0Ka2qNRo">Apparently</a> <i>gobo-gobo</i> is used in the Saramaccan creole of Suriname.</p><p><i>Peanut</i> itself is a comparatively recent word. OED1 finds it in 1835's <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=QJlKAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA206&vq=peanut">A Winter in the West : By a New-Yorker</a></i> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fenno_Hoffman">Charles Fenno Hoffman</a> (who the Wikipedia tells us edited <i>The New-York Book of Poetry</i> when it first attributed an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Visit_From_St._Nicholas">iconic image</a> to a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_Clarke_Moore">Professor of Hebrew</a> from Columbia). OED2 pushes it back to 1807 in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Irving">Washington Irving</a>'s <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=sT0NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA206&vq=peanuts">Salmagundi</a></i>, in a piece entitled, “The Stranger at Home; or a Tour of Broadway,” by Jeremy Cockloft, The Younger, a fictitious Englishman, visiting <a href="http://www.thebattery.org">The Battery</a>. <i>Salmagundi</i>, which is named after a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmagundi">salad</a> with everything, was issued in periodical form, containing satirical pieces by Irving and his brother-in-law <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Kirke_Paulding">James Kirke Paulding</a> and poetry by Washington's brother <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Irving_(New_York)">William</a>, making it something of an intellectual predecessor of <i>The New Yorker</i>. The 2007 draft update for OED3 finds an earlier 1802 Washington Irving <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=TAiuKgqAJ8wC&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=%22i+amused+myself+with+eating+pea+nuts%22&ots=KrLDO0yxnl&sig=n42v06VPz0-gHrnkcTHBwUhzM74">letter</a> under the name of Jonathan Oldstyle published in 1 Dec. <i>The Morning Chronicle</i> on seeing a performance of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Colman_the_Younger">Colman the Younger</a>'s <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=tjwOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA124&lpg=PA124&dq=%22battle+of+hexham%22+%22days+of+old%22"><i>Battle of Hexham</i></a> and amusing himself “with eating peanuts.” Another <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=TAiuKgqAJ8wC&pg=PA27&vq=crackling+of+nuts"&sig=ctUi4hu29NgIInu6bj7tN_ObkDI">letter</a> published the following month complains about eating in the theater and in particular, “the cracking of nuts.” The writer of a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=LTw5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA232">letter</a> to the editor in the April, 1811 <i>The Mirror of Taste and Dramatic Censor</i>, the most important theatrical journal of its time, see his chances with a rich widow take a bad turn “because I was convicted of eating pea-nuts, while Othello was smothering Desdemona.” But the earliest reference in the current OED entry is Henry Wansey's <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/65354537">An Excursion to the United States of North America in the Summer of 1794</a></i> in a journal entry dated 3 Jul, 1796:</p><blockquote><p>I brought from the United States with me … Of nuts, hiccory and chinquopin, or pea nuts. The latter, I find, is very common in China, as a native Chineſe told me, when dining at my houſe, with two gentlemen of Lord Macartney's ſuite, ſome of thoſe nuts being on the table. (p. 250; in <a href="http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/index.php?id=img&no_cache=1&IDDOC=5130">GDZ</a>, but since I cannot figure out how to deep link to a page, pick 268 : 250)</p></blockquote><p>The author has confused chincapin, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castanea_pumila">dwarf chestnut</a>, with peanut, but it is not clear which he really had.</p><p>The interesting thing is, the peanut <i>is</i> very common in China, and surprisingly early, too. It is interesting to review the history of trying to ascertain just how early.</p><p>The ordinary word for 'peanut' is 花生 <i>hua1sheng1</i> (Cantonese <i>faa1sang1</i>), short for 落花生 <i>luo4hua1sheng1</i> 'falling flower-born nut'. It is also known as 香豆 <i>xiang1dou4</i> 'fragrant nut' and 地豆 <i>di4dou4</i> 'ground nut'. As mentioned in the <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/07/potato.html">potato</a> post, <a href="http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/土豆">土豆</a> <i>tu3dou4</i> (Cant. <i>tou2dau6</i>) 'earth nut' is 'potato' on the mainland, but 'peanut' in Taiwan. In the North, it is called 長生果 <i>chang2sheng1guo3</i> 'long-life nut' or 千歲子 <i>qian1sui4zi0</i> 'thousand-year seed'. The area <a href="http://www.lanra.uga.edu/peanut/download/china.pdf">paper</a> for China on the University of Georgia peanut <a href="http://www.lanra.uga.edu/peanut/knowledgebase/">site</a> includes “<i>Wuhuaguo</i> (flowerless nut),” but I think 無花果 <i>wu2hua1guo3</i> is 'fig' in most of the country. For this discussion, it is mostly the earlier term 落花生 <i>luo4hua1sheng1</i> that matters.</p><p>According to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Bretschneider">Emil Bretschneider</a>'s “Early European Researches into the Flora of China” (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=DEADAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA96">p. 96</a>), the first European botanist to mention peanuts in China was Linnaeus' student <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pehr_Osbeck">Pehr Osbeck</a>, in his journal entry for Oct. 27, 1751 (Vol. I, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OkkQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA377">p. 377</a> of the English translation; the Swedish does not seem to be online). The Chinese name he gives is <i>fy shin</i>, along the lines of Cantonese 花生 <i>faa1sang1</i>.</p><p>By way of baseline for botanical historians at the turn of the 20th century, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse_de_Candolle">Alphonse de Candolle</a>, writing in 1883 after a South American origin had been pretty firmly established (see above), rejected the 1818 theory of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brown_(botanist)">Robert Brown</a> that peanuts came to Africa from China by way of India (see <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RKyTYE4RIMMC&pg=PA473&vq=china&sig=hzeC-98KwdggRv-Jnd7uTA9PA6s">here</a>, from an appendix sometimes separately reprinted as <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/7189531">Botany of Congo</a></i>; note that that appendix is missing from the full view <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=h1cMAAAAYAAJ">scan</a> of the <i>Narrative</i>). As for when peanuts arrived in China, he deferred to Bretschneier, on which more presently (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VhYAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA332&vq=bretschneider">French</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=kqcMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA414&vq=bretschneider">English</a>). <a href="http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/sturtevant/sturtevant.html">Edward Lewis Sturtevant</a>, in his 1890 article “The History of Garden Vegetables” (<a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0147(189002)24:278<143:THOGV(>2.0.CO;2-J">JSTOR</a>), in a couple pages on peanut, does not mention China, even to give a Chinese name. The posthumous (1919) <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/819885/"><i>Sturtevant's Edible Plants of the World</i></a> only observes, “In China, especially in Kwangtung, peanuts are grown in large quantities and their consumption by the people is very great.” (p. 60; <a href="http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/sturtevant/arachis.html">online</a>)</p><p>In “Study and Value of Chinese Botanical Works” (1871), Bretschneider concludes (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PcELAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA224">p. 224</a>) that peanuts were introduced to China in the last century (that is, the 18th), since they do not appear in the Ming 本草綱目 <i>ben3cao3 gang1mu4</i> '<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bencao_Gangmu">Compendium of Materia Medica</a>'. They are listed in the 1848 <a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/50871260">植物名實圖考</a> <i>zhi2 wu4 ming2 shi2 tu2 kao3</i> 'Illustrated Examination of Botanical Names' (Chap. XXXI) under the names 落花生 <i>luo4hua1sheng1</i> and 番豆 <i>fan1dou4</i> 'foreign bean'. And in the descriptive part (Chap. XVI) it says that the peanut is not indigenous, but comes by way of the sea from the Southern countries and was introduced to Canton in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_Dynasty">Song</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Dynasty">Yuan</a> dynasty, at which time it was called 地豆 <i>di4dou4</i>. Bretschneider believes that this is correct on the route, but not the time.</p><p>In 1906, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berthold_Laufer">Berthold Laufer</a> responded with “Notes on the introduction of the ground-nut into China” (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=iUgBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259">pp. 259-262</a>). He found much earlier references in <a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/26031834">本草綱目拾遺</a> <i>ben3cao3 gang1mu4 shi2 yi2</i> 'Omissions in the BenCao GangMu' (1765).</p><p>In 1936-37, <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-9118(198705)46:2<469:OLCG(>2.0.CO;2-E">L. Carrington Goodrich</a> wrote “Early notices of the peanut in China” (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=uiaOR4PtKIKkiQGq7KXVBQ&as_brr=0&id=MXhi164dF0sC&q=%22Early+notices+of+the+peanut+in+China%22&pgis=1#search">snippet</a>). His paper primarily aimed to amplify Laufer's references, in particular since they were published in a form that did not permit Chinese characters.</p><p>Now, the 本草綱目拾遺 is available online; for instance, a PDF scan of a woodblock edition can be downloaded from <a href="http://epasser.aydc.com.cn/tw/ebook/bdp/content2628.html">here</a>. The entry that Laufer refers to and Goodrich translates begins on p. 241, s.v. 落花生油 <i>luo4hua1sheng1you2</i> 'peanut oil'. The most significant quotation, and the earliest, is the sixth, which reads:</p><blockquote><p>萬曆仙居縣志落花生原出福建近得其種植之。</p><p><i>wan4li4 xian1ju1 xian4 zhi4 luo4hua1sheng1 yuan2 chu1 fu2jian4 jin4 de2 qi2 zhong4 zhi2 zhi1</i>.</p><p>Wanli Xianju County Chronicle: Peanut originally came from Fujian; recently seeds were obtained and planted here.</p></blockquote><p>Laufer concludes that by the time this was published in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanli_Emperor">Wanli</a> period (1573-1620, and 1608/9 specifically), peanuts had been brought from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujian">Fujian</a> province north to Xianju in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> province, and that they must have been brought there by Chinese sailors from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malay_Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a>. Goodrich notes that he was unable to find the quotation in the 1838 reprint of the Chronicle, but has not seen the earlier edition.</p><p>Goodrich concludes with the story of the death of the editor of vernacular literature <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_Shengtan">Jin Shengtan</a> (金聖歎; Giles <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=sgERAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA150&vq=chin+sheng-t'an">biography</a>), who famously joked before being beheaded for treason in 1662. In some versions of the story, his dying letter to his son includes:</p><blockquote><p>豆腐乾與花生米同嚼,有火腿味。 (as given in Chinese <a href="http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/金聖歎">Wikipedia</a>)</p><p><i>dou4fu0 gan1 yu3 hua1sheng1 mi3 tong2 jiao2, you3 huo3tui3 wei4</i>.</p><p>Peanuts and dried bean curd together taste just like ham. (Since the translation given by Goodrich is a little bit different, I assume his Chinese text was too. There seem to be several different versions of the will, including ones without any peanut recipe.)</p></blockquote><p>In 1955, <a href="http://db1n.sinica.edu.tw/textdb/ioconas/02.php?func=22.1&_op=?ID:H003">Ping-Ti Ho</a> wrote “The Introduction of American Food Plants into China” (<a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7294(195504)2:57:2<191:TIOAFP>2.0.CO;2-V">JSTOR</a>). He locates an earlier reference in a treatise on cultivating taro, 種芋法 <i>zhong3 yu4 fa3</i> 'principles of planting taro', by the 16th century scholar Huang Xingzeng (黄省曾) of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzhou">Suzhou</a>.</p><blockquote><p>又有皮黃肉白,甘美可食,莖葉如扁豆而細,謂之香芋。又有引蔓開花,花落即生,名之曰落花生。皆嘉定有之。(from <a href="http://economy.guoxue.com/article.php/3951">here</a>, whose page reference matches Ho's, with traditional characters restored)</p><p><i>you4 you3 pi2 huang2 rou4 bai2, gan1 mei3 ke3 shi2, jing1 ye4 ru2 bian3dou4 er2 xi4, wei4 zhi1 xiang1yu4. you4 you3 yin3 man4 kai1 hua1, hua1 luo4 ji2 sheng1, ming2 zhi1 yue1 luo4hau1sheng1. jie1 jia1ding4 you3 zhi1</i>.</p><p>There is another [kind of tuber] whose skin is yellow and whose flesh is white. It is delicious and highly edible. Its stem and leaves are like those of the broad bean but slimmer. It is called xiang-yu (fragrant taro). There is yet another kind whose flowers are on the vinelike stem. After the flowers fall, [the pods] begin to develop [underground]. It is called luo-hua-sheng. Both are produced in Jiading county (near Shanghai). (tr. Ho)</p></blockquote><p>Ho also reports that the 1538 edition of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changshu">Changshu</a> County Record 常熟县志 <i>chang2shu2 xian4zhi4</i> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> province lists peanut as a local product.</p><p>Google managed to <a href="http://www.google.com/search?q=inurl:2006310173941169">capture</a> an updated paper on a site that does not seem to respond any more. It is by 王宝卿 Wang Baoqing and titled “花生的传入、传播及其影响研究 <i>hua1sheng1 de0 chuan2ru4, chuan2bo1 ji2qi2 ying3xiang3 yan2jiu1</i> Peanut: Its introduction, spread, and influences.” It includes a quote from the same 常熟县志 <i>chang2shu2 xian4zhi4</i> 'Changshu County Record' for 1503 (I assume this is an earlier entry from the same place and not a question of dating of the same record):</p><blockquote><p>落花生,三月栽,引蔓不甚长。俗云花落在地,而子生土中,故名。霜后煮熟可食,味甚香美</p><p><i>luo4hua1sheng1, san1yue4 zai1, yin3 man4 bu4 shen2 chang2. su2 yun2 hua1 luo4 zai4 di4, er2 zi3 sheng1 tu3 zhong1, gu4 ming2. shuang1 hou4 zhu3shu2 ke3 shi2, wei4 shen4 xiang1 mei3.</i></p><p>Peanuts, planted in March, yield not very long vines. People say the vine falls on the ground, and seeds grow in the earth, hence the name. After the frost it can be boiled and eaten. The taste is very fragrant and pleasing.</p></blockquote><p>Since the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Perestrello">Portuguese</a> did not arrive in Canton until 1516, that would definitely settle that Chinese merchants brought it back from contact with them somewhere in the South Seas. Wang therefore outlines Ming naval technology. But it is still not early enough to require that the Chinese brought it all the way from South America themselves.</p><p>The complementary line of attack is archeology. And since the 1960's there has been a steady stream of discoveries that initially seem to point to peanut remains in Chinese archeological sites. Unfortunately, none of them have been as unequivocal as the Peruvian evidence: either the stratification isn't clean or the fossils might really be soybeans. (For a summary, see <a href="http://geography.berkeley.edu/PeopleHistory/History/60YrsGeog/Simoons,%20Frederick.html">Frederick Simoons</a>' <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/20392910">Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry</a>,</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Fo087ZxohA4C&pg=PA280&vq=peanut&sig=7k0_cm4_9MalK0upGhpUKaRXbZA">pp. 280-281</a>.) The first two such sites were in fact Neolithic: Qianshanyang (<a href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/473829.htm">錢山漾</a>) in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> province and Paomaling (跑馬嶺) in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a> province. On problems with these early results, see this <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0011-3204(197312)14:5<525:RDFCSI>2.0.CO;2-S">paper</a> and this <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0011-3204(197302/04)14:1/2<51:OTQOEF>2.0.CO;2-K">one</a>. The second one is additionally interesting for a discussion of how various vernacular names get reused for new plants; it mentions the Bambara ground-nut to peanut case. But as it points out, textual evidence is not relevant for the Chinese peanut, since it indicates them showing up in the 16th century. The latest of these finds seems to be a news report from Oct. 10, 2007. I have not found it on English language news sites, but there is a piece from <a href="http://news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2007-10/10/content_6859194.htm">xinhuanet</a> and a somewhat longer one from <a href="http://www.china.com.cn/news/txt/2007-10/10/content_9027576.htm">china.com</a> (with a photo), plus loads of similar ones. The report tells of fossilized peanuts from 2100 years B.P. at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty">Han Dynasty</a> site of <a href="http://www.travelchinaguide.com/attraction/shaanxi/xian/hanyang.htm">Hanyangling</a> (漢陽陵) in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a> province. The director, Wang Baoping (王保平) is quoted as saying that photos by Louis Mazzatenta in a National Geographic piece (maybe <a href="http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0402/feature1/index.html">this</a> one) from an excavation in the 1990's excited the interest of an unnamed peanut (and maize) expert from the University of Oregon, who has now confirmed that these are peanuts. I will get back to this story below.</p><p>In Japanese, 落花生 is borrowed straight as <i>rakkasei</i>, or 'peanut' is 南京豆 <i>nankin-mame</i> 'Nanjing bean'.</p><p>In 1790, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/João_de_Loureiro">João de Loureiro</a> proposed (unsuccessfully) a new species, <i>Arachis asiatica</i> (<i>Flora Cochinchinensis</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cwsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA522">p. 522</a>), based on a plant in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a> named <i>cây đậu phụng</i>. <i>cây</i> is 'plant' and <i>đậu phụng</i> is a dialectal word for 'peanut'. The more standard Vietnamese word is <i>lạc</i>, which the <a href="http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lạc">Wikipedia</a> says is short for <i>lạc hoa sinh</i> (落花生).</p><p>The Spanish carried the peanut to the Philippines and the Tagalog word for 'peanut' is <i>mani</i>. Interestingly enough, <i>manila nut</i> is a Colonial era English expression for 'peanut'.</p><p>In Indonesian and Malay, 'peanut' is <i>kacang tanah</i> 'earth bean'. Likewise Burmese <span style="font-family:MyaZedi">မ္ရေပဲ</span> <i>mye pai</i> and Khmer សណ្ដែកដី <i>sandaek dei</i>. In Thai, it is ถั่วลิสง <i>tùa-lí-sŏng</i>. ถั่ว <i>tùa</i> is 'bean', but sometimes used alone for 'peanut'; apparently ลิสง <i>lí-sŏng </i>and the similar sounding ยี่สง <span class="uc"><i>yêe-sŏng</i> </span>are also used alone to mean 'peanut'. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Pallegoix">Jean-Baptiste Pallegoix</a> mentions peanuts in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanthaburi_Province">Chanthaburi</a> in 1854 (<i>Description du Royame Thai</i>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=uacBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA73&vq=arachide">p. 73</a>). น้ำจิ้มถั่ว <i>náam jîm tùa</i> 'peanut sauce', particularly for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satay">satay</a> dishes originating in Indonesia, is one of several foods that have been significantly reinvented in American Thai cooking (compare <a href="http://www.panix.com/clay/cookbook/bin/show_recipe.cgi?thai+recipe107">here</a> and <a href="http://www.templeofthai.com/recipes/satay_peanut_sauce.php">here</a>, for instance, for the consistency of the peanuts used).</p><p>The terms for 'peanut' in the Indian subcontinent, as elsewhere, tend to involve the plant's habit:</p><ul><li>Hindi मूंगफली <i style="font-family:Code2000">mūṃg-phalī</i> 'mung-bean pod', Gujarati મગફળી <i style="font-family:Code2000">magaphaḷī</i>.</li><li>Bengali মাটকলাই <i style="font-family:Code2000">māṭa-kalāi</i> 'earth bean'.</li><li>Marathi भुईमूग <i style="font-family:Code2000">bhuī-mūga</i> 'ground mung-bean'.</li><li>Tamil நிலக்கடலை <i style="font-family:Code2000">nila-k-kaṭalai</i> 'ground chickpea', Malayalam നിലക്കടല <i style="font-family:Code2000">nilakkaṭala</i>.</li><li>Tamil வேர்க்கடலை <i style="font-family:Code2000">vēr-k-kaṭalai</i> 'root chickpea', Telugu వేరుసెనగ <i style="font-family:Code2000">vēru-senaga</i>.</li><li>Kannada ಕಡಲೇಕಾಯಿ <i style="font-family:Code2000">kaḍalē-kāyi</i> 'chickpea pod'.</li></ul><p>Several forms explicitly declare foreign origins in a way that mostly agrees with the expected geography:</p><ul><li>Hindi चीनाबादाम <i style="font-family:Code2000">cīnā-badāma</i> 'China almond', Bengali চিনাবাদাম <i style="font-family:Code2000">cinābādāma</i>. (Although one dictionary <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/romadict.pl?query=%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE&table=biswas-bangala">says</a> < Tamil சின்ன <i style="font-family:Code2000">ciṉṉa</i> small.)</li><li>Tamil மணிலாக்கொட்டை <i style="font-family:Code2000">maṇilā-k-koṭṭai</i> 'Manila nut', மனிலாப்பயறு <i style="font-family:Code2000">maṉilā-p-payaṟu</i> 'Manila bean'.</li><li>Marathi विलायती मूग <i style="font-family:Code2000">vilāyatī mūga</i> 'Foreign (English) mung-bean'.</li><li>Hindi मोसंबी चणा <i style="font-family:Code2000">mosaṃbī caṇā</i> 'Mozambique chickpea' referred to Bambara ground-nut in Raj times, and might conceivably have also covered peanut at some earlier time.</li></ul><p>The Sinhala රටකජු <i style="font-family:Code2000">raṭa-kaju</i> 'foreign cashew' is interesting because cashews were also brought from South America by the Portuguese: <i>cajú</i> is a Tupi word, from which we also get the English; presumably both come through Portuguese <i>acajú</i>. There are, of course, many more similar combinations in related languages and dialects: see <a href="http://www.frlht.org.in/meta/index.php?searchname=arachis&plantid=209#view">here</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=1Vw6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA494&vq=arachis">here</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=x07iKb5rVk4C&pg=PA280&vq=arachis">here</a> and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=trUgpMbT5gcC&pg=PA1648&vq=arachis&ei=VXquR6rSM42kzgTkyuidBg&sig=W3K237Mi9yxamz_kOH53uRh0Rug">here</a>, for instance. I am not sure what <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Buchanan-Hamilton">Buchanan-Hamilton</a> is referring to <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=yxYbGRdVEnEC&pg=RA2-PA441&vq=arachis&sig=WXhlTEyBZ39_pJNlo06jVJS8Yio">here</a> with “<i>Sunicai</i>.” The Sanskrit words listed as not Classical, so they aren't in any of the usual dictionaries. <i>mandapi</i> is presumably borrowed from Portguese <i>mundubi</i> from one of the Tupi-Guaraní words. <i>buchanaka</i> is evidently भूचणक <i style="font-family:Code2000">bhū-caṇaka</i> 'earth chickpea', modeled after one of the modern language forms, and according to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Watt_(professor_of_botany)">Watt</a> the invention of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Birdwood">Birdwood</a> for <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4NdBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA117&vq=arachis+boochanaka">Catalogue of the Economic Products of Bombay</a></i> (1865).</p><p>Search finds an LDS website with two closely <a href="http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=jbms&id=356">related</a> <a href="http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=transcripts&id=155">papers</a> by a Mormon anthropologist that aim to provide philological evidence for Pre-Columbian intercontinental voyages conveying foodstuffs, which are traditionally supported by scripture (e.g. <a href="http://scriptures.lds.org/en/1_ne/18/6b">1 Nephi 18:6</a>). The specific peanut cases given are, “Sanskrit, <i>andapi</i>; in Hindi, <i>munghali</i>; and in Gujarati, <i>mandavi</i>.” I suppose the first might be a typo for <i>mandapi</i>; it and <i>mandavi</i> probably do come from South America, but a simpler explanation might be that they were brought with the nut by the Portuguese. Assuming the second is <i>mungphali</i>, it does not look much like the others and has a transparent native etymology. The peanut may someday prove to be a key to Pre-Columbian contact between Asia and America, but it will most likely be due to definitive Chinese archeological evidence. On which point, note that the papers cite “Carl L. Johannessen, emeritus professor of geography at the University of Oregon” and that Professor Johannessen's <a href="http://geography.uoregon.edu/carljohannessen/cv.html">CV</a> lists research on peanut origins in Asia funded by a “Mormon Studies Grant.” It seems fairly certain that he is the unnamed peanut experts of the Chinese news reports. Of course, the the scientific details aren't given here and I am not qualified to judge them if they were.</p><p>For creative mining of word lists to support a revisionist history of the Americas, it is hard to beat <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/972570">Africa and the Discovery of America</a></i>, by Leo Wiener (no Wikipedia page), the first Professor of Slavic Languages and Literature at <a href="http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~slavic/welcome/history.htm">Harvard</a>, father (and teacher until high school) of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norbert_Wiener">Norbert</a>, boyhood friend of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._L._Zamenhof">Zamenhof</a>, early historian of <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=rvMNAAAAIAAJ">Yiddish</a> (Pater Noster translation <a href="http://www.librarything.com/tag/pater+noster">collectors</a> further appreciate his attempt to <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0149-6611(189403)9:3<78:TLPIJ>2.0.CO;2-3">correct</a> the <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nTHyIB800NQC&pg=PA224">Mithridates</a></i> version), translator of <a href="http://books.google.com/books?as_vt=The+Complete+Works+of+Count+Tolstoy&as_auth=wiener&as_brr=1">Tolstoy</a>, and like him a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ptA02VCdMlkC&pg=PP17&vq=vegetarian+teetotaler">vegetarian teetotaler</a>. The thesis is that everything traditionally associated with the Pre-Columbian civilizations comes from Africa, either not arriving until it was brought with slaves (invalidating the early explorer's claims) or due to earlier voyages (invalidating only their priority). Devastating <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7294(192004/06)2:22:2<178:AATDOA>2.0.CO;2-8">reviews</a> can be found in JSTOR. Google Books only has snippets, but <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/africadiscoveryo01wienrich">all</a> <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/africadiscoveryo02wienrich">three</a> <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/nativeracesthe03bancrich">volumes</a> are in the Internet Archive. Earlier, similar, works aimed to prove (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=lwwAAAAAYAAJ">1</a>) that the Germanic peoples did not have any real laws before the Romans, and all the Germanic words that deal with such concepts are from Latin and (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2SgkAAAAMAAJ">2</a>) that German results from a collision of Latin and Arabic (and standard Gothic is pretty much a hoax). Ten pages of peanut related material begins on page 251 of the first volume, in the “Bread Roots” chapter. The section covers many of the same texts as this pair of posts, but interprets them in a whole new way. For instance, حب العزيز <i style="font-family:Code2000">ḥabb al-ʿazīz</i> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyperus_esculentus"><i>Cyperus esculentus</i></a> (<a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000317.pdf">Lane</a>), apparently 'mighty seed', is, via حب عزيز <i style="font-family:Code2000">ḥabʿazīz</i>, from Chinese <i>lo hwa sheng</i> (落花生 <i>luo1hua1sheng1</i>), which gave لعزنخ <i style="font-family:Code2000">laʿazang</i>, but نخ was misread as يز. And this is corrupted to حب اللذيذ <i style="font-family:Code2000">ḥabulladzīdz</i> (<i style="font-family:Code2000">ḥabb al-laḏīḏ</i> 'delicious nut'), shorted to <i style="font-family:Code2000">dzīdz</i>, and gives African words like Wolof <i>gerte</i>. And so on. Another negative <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(192307)28:4<734:AATDOA>2.0.CO;2-8">review</a>, alluding to a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cdkFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA377&vq=%22cela+a+fait+du+dictionnaire+arabe+un+singulier+chaos+o%C3%B9+avec+un+peu+de+bonne+volont%C3%A9+on+peut+trouver+tout+ce+que+l+on+d%C3%A9sire%22">quip</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan">Renan</a>, says, “It has been said that with a little good-will one can find anything in the Arabic lexicon. Professor Wiener has a great deal of good-will.” The botany is also creative, seeing a peanut shell in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Andrea_Mattioli">Mattioli</a>'s description of <i>Trasi</i> (again usually <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyperus_esculentus">Cyperus esculentus</a></i>, as mentioned in the previous post. although to be fair the Chinese also saw a resemblance):</p><blockquote><p>Sunt igitur Traſi radiculæ figura, ac forma perſimiles ſericinis erucis, quæ feruenti balneo elixæ contrahuntur, dum ſerica ſtamina inde mulieres conglomerant. (<i>Commentarii</i>, s.v. Ornithogalum: same text in the <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58820r/f323.chemindefer">1554</a> and <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k53745m/f441.chemindefer">1562</a> editions as the <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/13466699">1558</a> that Wiener quotes; different text in the <a href="http://web2.bium.univ-paris5.fr/livanc/?p=533&cote=00825&do=page">1598</a> and <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/13478177">1565</a> to which Wiener later refers)</p><p>There is therefore a picture of the rootlets of <i>Trasi</i>, and the shape is similar to silk cocoons, which wrinkle when boiled in a boiling bath, while women roll up the silk threads from them.</p></blockquote><p>A number of factors contributed to peanut's success in America, such as scarcity and overseas supply disruption in wartime, mechanization and industrialization, immigrant street vendors and modern advertising. These are all covered thoroughly in <a href="http://www.andrewfsmith.com/">Andrew F. Smith</a>'s <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/3068870">Peanuts : The Illustrious History of the Goober Pea</a></i>. But one contribution that is within the scope of this blog is that of the same vegetarian food faddists that created modern <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/11/shredded-wheat.html">breakfast cereals</a>. Like Jin Shengtan, 19th century vegetarians looked to nuts as one of the bases for constructing meat substitutes. In his 1859 <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/1731728">Vegetable Diet</a></i>, William Andrus Alcott (who was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisa_May_Alcott">Louisa May Alcott</a>'s father's cousin, not her father as Smith writes) favors chestnuts, but <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2OoqMLZo4fIC&pg=PA312&vq=peanut">mentions</a> peanuts. In 1898, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Harvey_Kellogg">John Harvey Kellogg</a> formed the Sanitas Nut Food Company to market his vegetarian food products, which included Nuttose, a mixture of milled peanuts and flour. Beard's 1902 <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_mkPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41&vq=nuttose">Natural, Hygienic & Humane Diet</a></i> and Black's 1908 <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eDo993XzWrEC&pg=PA35-IA1&vq=nuttose">Manual of Vegetarian Cookery</a></i> include Nuttose recipes. The latter furthermore has <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eDo993XzWrEC&pg=PP2&vq=%22peanut+butter%22">ads</a> for peanut butter. Ella Eaton Kellogg, John Harvey's wife, wrote <i><a href="http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/coldfusion/display.cfm?ID=scie&PageNum=128">Science in the Kitchen</a></i> in 1893 and it mentions making bread from peanuts. More interestingly, her 1904 <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=GCELAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA163&vq=%22peanut+butter%22">Healthful Cookery</a></i>, which naturally mentioned Nuttose, includes a number of recipes using peanut butter. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emarel_Freshel">M. L. R. Sharpe</a>'s 1908 <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cWcEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA282&vq=%22peanut+butter%22">Golden Rule Cook Book</a></i>, one of the most popular vegetarian cookbooks of the early 20th century, includes a recipe for peanut butter sandwiches. Vegetarians of a certain age will remember <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diet_for_a_Small_Planet">Diet for a Small Planet</a></i>'s “protein complementary” combination of peanut butter and whole wheat bread. Which raises the question, who invented <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_butter">peanut butter</a>?</p><ul><li>The person who is most famous for <i>not</i> inventing peanut butter is probably <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Carver">George Washington Carver</a>. The <a href="http://www.nps.gov/archive/gwca/expanded/peanut.htm">list</a> of peanut by-products at the Carver National Monument includes peanut butter. Some list of achievements by African-American list Carver inventing peanut butter, for instance in <a href="http://www.ncbbd.com/inventions.htm">1896</a> or <a href="http://www.afrikation.com/Content/African_Facts/AfricanAmericanInventors.htm">1900</a>. Carver was a tireless promoter of peanuts, but they weren't his main interest when he joined the Tuskegee Institute in 1896 and he never actually claimed to have invented many of the products he demonstrated. The patents Carver did file (<a href="http://www.google.com/patents?id=TK5KAAAAEBAJ&dq=1522176">1,522,176</a>, <a href="http://www.google.com/patents?id=dwtLAAAAEBAJ&dq=1541478">1,541,478</a>, <a href="http://www.google.com/patents?id=KjB5AAAAEBAJ&dq=1632365">1,632,365</a>) are unrelated, for cosmetics and paints. All of which has been <a href="http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1977/5/1977_5_66.shtml">clarified</a> before, particularly during the Carter administration when peanuts were topical. So now it's like one of those <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QI">QI</a> answers that gets negative points.</li><li>Kellogg did <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=CBGxvXF332cC&pg=PA358&vq=%22peanut+butter%22">claim</a> to have invented peanut butter in 1893. In 1895, he obtained US Patent <a href="http://www.google.com/patents?id=uGBVAAAAEBAJ&dq=580787">580,787</a>, Process for Preparing Nutmeal, which sounds like it might make peanut butter. But what it really makes is not much mealier than what we'd recognize as peanut butter.</li><li>Joseph Lambert was working for Kellogg in 1894 when he was experimenting with nut butters and claimed to be the first to make peanut butter. He obtained US Patent <a href="http://www.google.com/patents?id=G9tDAAAAEBAJ&dq=625400">625,400</a> Mill for Making Nut-Butter and had <a href="http://www.google.com/patents?id=FdtDAAAAEBAJ&dq=625394">625,394</a> Nut-Mill assigned to him. He published <i><a href="http://www.archive.org/details/guidefornutcooke00lamb">Guide for Nut Cookery</a></i>, written by his wife Almeda, who was Ella's protégée, which has the history of various nuts, including peanuts, instructions for making nut meals and butters (Joseph was selling nut mills), and recipes calling for them, such as a mock oyster soup made with peanut milk and nut cutlets.</li><li>In 1890, an unnamed Saint Louis physician began making peanut butter for people with poor teeth (<a href="http://www.foodhistory.com/foodnotes/leftovers/peanutbutter.htm">here</a> or <a href="http://www.peanutsusa.org.uk/Europe/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.page&pid=59">here</a>) or he encourages George H. Bayle, the owner of a food products company, to make it (<a href="http://www.peanutbutterlovers.com/history/index.html">here</a>).</li><li>In other versions, the physician is named Ambrose W. Straub and he made it in 1880 (<a href="http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/Sandwiches/PeanutButterJellySandwich.htm">here</a>). Straub obtained patent <a href="http://www.google.com/patents?id=AepPAAAAEBAJ&dq=721651">721,651</a> Mill for Grinding Peanuts for Butter in 1903. He licensed the rights to Bayle (<a href="http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/Sandwiches/PeanutButterJellySandwich.htm">here</a>) and concessionaire C. H. Sumner sold peanut butter at the 1904 Saint Louis World's Fair (<a href="http://homecooking.about.com/od/foodhistory/a/pbutterhistory.htm">here</a>). In addition to problems with the dates, the patent says that Straub lived in Philadelphia, as does an earlier <a href="http://www.google.com/patents?id=sYNjAAAAEBAJ&dq=ambrose+w+straub">one</a> from 1873.</li><li>Smith says that New York historian Eleanor Rosakranse tracked down a Rose Davis of Alligerville, New York, who started grinding peanuts into peanut butter in the 1840s after seeing something similar in Cuba.</li><li>In 1884, Marcellus Gilmore Edson of Montreal obtained US Patent <a href="http://www.google.com/patents?id=0ctEAAAAEBAJ&dq=306727">306,727</a> for Manufacture of Peanut-Candy. His invention was simply to heat the grinding surfaces before adding the hot roasted nuts. The peanut paste that results when cooled, in addition to making candy when mixed one-to-seven with sugar, does have the consistency of butter.</li></ul><p>There is certainly enough peanut material for more posts at some point. Quotation dictionaries like to record that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.L._Mencken">H. L. Mencken</a> said “That if one begins eating peanuts one cannot stop.” And this has been picked up by food writers and television hosts: I am sure I remember Alton Brown saying it on a peanut show. But, like half of what Shakespeare famously wrote, the context significantly alters the meaning. In 1920, Mencken and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Jean_Nathan">George Jean Nathan</a> wrote <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/14461516">The American Credo: A Contribution Toward the Interpretation of the National Mind</a></i>, and indeed that aphorism is <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=m9IbAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA161&vq=%C2%A7316">§316</a>. However, this book starts with a hundred page preface, signed by both but written by Mencken, arguing against the blind acceptance of ready-made opinions. Moreover, a further sampling will give a better sense of the work:</p><blockquote><p><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=m9IbAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&vq=%C2%A7323">§323</a> That when Washington crossed the Delaware, he stood up in the bow of the boat holding aloft a large American flag.</p><p><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=m9IbAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA145&vq=%C2%A7230">§230</a> That many soldiers' lives have been saved in battle by bullets lodging in Bibles which they have carried in their breast pockets.</p><p><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=m9IbAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA160&vq=%C2%A7313">§313</a> That whenever there is a funeral in an Irish family the mourners all get drunk and proceed to assault one another with clubs.</p><p><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=m9IbAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA142&vq=%C2%A7212">§212</a> That an Italian puts garlic in everything he eats, including coffee.</p><p><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=m9IbAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA111&vq=%C2%A722">§22</a> That all male negroes can sing.</p></blockquote><p>Some of them are just silly and others are more dangerous, but I believe a point of the work is that it is a slippery slope once one believes accepted wisdom uncritically.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-68451049236746082792008-01-15T23:39:00.002-05:002008-02-20T01:44:19.844-05:00Peanut<p>It used to be that all the local Indian markets had snack packages of Spicy Cashews, that is, cashews with chili powder, which make a nice appetizer or snack with a few drops of lemon juice. But lately we cannot seem to find them. It's not like they're hard to make at home, sprinkling some cayenne on roasted cashews, but nuts bought for that purpose never seem to last that long. Fortunately, the supermarket has taken to stocking some Hot & Spicy Peanuts.</p><p>A number of fundamental foodstuffs originate in the Americas, such as <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/04/chili-part-i.html">chili peppers</a>, <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/04/spaghetti-squash.html">squash</a>, <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/07/potato.html">potato</a> and maize. And a number of foods made their way into the American diet, and particularly the Southern American diet, from being originally the food of slaves from Africa, such as <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/01/okra.html">okra</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-eyed_pea">black-eyed peas</a> and, to some extent, sesame seeds. Peanuts are unusual, if not unique, for coming from the New World to North America by way of Africa.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2008/01/peanut.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>This post is one of two; it covers texts of European discovery and classification. The <a href="/2008/02/peanut-continued.html">second post</a> covers the spread around the world, including back to America.<p>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut">peanut</a> originated in South America, probably in what is now Bolivia. It was extensively cultivated in nearby Brazil and Peru, where a fossilized peanut hull dated 7,600 years ago was <a href="http://www.vanderbilt.edu/exploration/text/index.php?action=view_section&id=1287&story_id=307&images=">found</a>. It is nutritious. It does well in otherwise marginal sandy soils, which its pegs need to penetrate, and is good for the soil because as a legume it fixes nitrogen. It had spread north to Mesoamerica before the arrival of Europeans.<p>The first published European reference to peanuts was by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonzalo_Fernández_de_Oviedo_y_Valdés">Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo</a>, a Spanish nobleman who traveled to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a> and wrote its official history on his return, in his 1535 <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/36639425"><i>La historia general delas Indias</i></a>: <blockquote><p>Del maní, que es çierto género de fructa é mantenimiento ordinario que tienen los indios en esta Isla Española é otras islas destas Indias.<p>Una fructa tienen los indios en esta Isla Española, que llaman <i>maní</i>, la qual ellos siembran é cogen, é les es muy ordinaria planta en sus huertos y heredades, y es tamaña como piñones con cáscara, é tiénenla ellos por sana: los chripstianos poco caso haçen della, si no son algunos hombres baxos, ó muchachos, y esclavos, ó gente que no perdona su gusto á cosa alguna. Es de mediocre sabor é de poca substançia, é muy ordinaria legumbre á los indios, é hayla en gran cantidad. (Book. VII Chap. 5; <a href="http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/05816284255727262232268/ima0371.htm">p. 274</a> of the complete 1851 edition; similar, even more modernized text <a href="http://www.ems.kcl.ac.uk/content/etext/e026.html#d0e4253">here</a>)<p>Concerning the <i>maní</i> (peanut), which is another fruit and ordinary food which the Indians have on Hispaniola and other islands of the Indies.<p>Another fruit which the Indians have on Hispaniola is called <i>maní</i>. They sow it and harvest it. It is a very common crop in their gardens and fields. It is about the size of a pine (piñon) nut with the shell. They consider it a healthy food. However, the Christians do not use it unless they are unmarried males or children, or slaves and common people, who do not pamper their taste. It has a very mediocre taste and little substance. Its consumption among the Indians is very common. It is abundant on this and other islands. (tr. Latham in Hammons, “Early History and Origin of the Peanut,” in <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/book/25540829">Peanuts : Culture and Uses</a>,</i> from what is probably closer to the original text, which does not seem to be online)</blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomé_de_Las_Casas">Bartolomé de las Casas</a> wrote an earlier account in his <a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/29126385"><i>Historia de las Indias</i></a>, a work which was not published until 1875.<blockquote><p>Otra fructa tenian, que sembraban y se criaba ó hacia debajo de la tierra, que no eran raíces sino lo mismo que el meollo de las avellanas de Castilla, digo que eran ni más ni ménos que las avellanas sin cáscara, y estas tenian su cáscara ó vaina en que nacian y con que se cubrian muy diferente que las avellanas, porque era de la manera como están las habas en sus vainas cuando están en el habar, puesto que ni era verde la vaina ni blanda, sino seca, cuasi de la manera que están las vainas de las arvejas ó de los garbanzos en Castilla cuando están para cogerlas; llamábase maní, la última sílaba aguda, y era tan sabrosa que ni avellanas ni nueces, ni otra fruta seca de las de Castilla por sabrosa que fuese, se le podia comparar. Y porque siempre se comia della mucha por su buen sabor, es luégo el dolor de la cabeza tras ella, pero no comiendo demasiada ni duele la cabeza ni hace otro daño; háse de comer siempre, para que sepa muy bien, con pan cazabi, ó de trigo si lo hay. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_5kLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA309">p. 309</a>)<p>They had another fruit which was sown and grew beneath the soil, which were not roots but which resembled the meat of the filbert nut of Castille. I say, that they were neither more nor less than filbert nut without the shells, and these had thin shells or pods in which they grew and were covered in a different fashion than filbert nuts because they were in a manner similar to how beans are found in the pods, because these pods were not green nor soft but were dried in a manner of the sweet pea or chick pea of Castille at the time they were ready for harvest, they are called maní, with an acute accent on the last syllable, and were so tasty that neither hazelnuts not walnuts, not any other fruit fruit of those in Castille whatsoever could compare for taste. And because still if you ate too much of them for their good taste, then you got a headache from them, but not eating too much does not hurt the head nor cause other damage; it is always eaten, for they know it very well, with cassava bread, or wheat if they have it. (tr. after Latham)</blockquote>The Taino word <i>mani</i> is still used in American Spanish outside Mexico for 'peanut'. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inca_Garcilaso_de_la_Vega">Garcilaso de la Vega</a>, “El Inca,” the son of a Spanish father and noble Inca mother, explains why he uses it as well as the Quechua word <i>inchis</i> in his <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/55238375">Comentarios Reales</a></i> (1609): <blockquote><p><b>De las legumes que se crian debajo de la tierra</b></p><p>Hay otra fruta que nace debajo de la tierra, que los indios llaman <i>inchic</i> y los españoles <i>maní</i> (todos los nombres que los españoles ponen a las frutas y legumbres del Perú son del lenguaje de las islas de Barlovento, que los han introducido ya en su lengua española, y por eso damos cuenta de ellos); el inchic semeja mucho, en la médula y en el gusto, a las almendras; si se come crudo ofende a la cabeza, y si tostado, es sabroso y provechoso; com miel hacen de él muy bien turrón; también sacan del inchic muy lindo aceite para muchas enfermedades. (Lib. VIII, cap. 10; p. 173 in a modern <a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/5943308">edition</a>; similar text <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=3rTKGE0hC3YC&pg=PA77&vq=inchic+mani&sig=XtwmIgxM2NB9-DOkXPFBn56obMw">here</a>)</p><p><b>Of the vegetables that they grow beneath the ground</b></p><p>There is another vegetable which is raised under the ground, called by the Indians <i>ynchic</i>. It is very like marrow, and has the taste of almonds. The Spaniards call it <i>maní</i>, but all the names which the Spaniards give to the fruits and vegetables of Peru belong to the language of the Antilles. They have been adopted by the Spaniards, and therefore we speak of them as Spanish words. If the <i>ynchic</i> is eaten raw it causes a headache, but when toasted it is wholesome, and very good with treacle; and they make an excellent sweetmeat from it. They also obtain an oil from the <i>ynchic</i>, which is good for many diseases. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=YeRAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA360&vq=ynchic+mani">Markham</a>)</p><p><b>The vegetables that grow in the earth</b></p><p>There is another fruit that grows underground which the Indians call <i>inchic</i> and the Spaniards <i>maní</i> [peanuts]—all the names that Spaniards apply to the fruits and vegetables of Peru are taken from the language of the Windward Islands and have now been adopted into Spanish, which is why we give them. The <i>inchic</i> is very like almonds in consistency and taste. It is bad for the head if eaten raw, but tasty and wholesome if toasted. With honey it makes an excellent marzipan. An excellent oil useful for many illnesses is also extracted from <i>inchic</i>. (tr. <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/isbn/0292770383">Livermore</a> p. 501)</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felipe_Guaman_Poma_de_Ayala">Poma</a>'s brief <a href="http://www.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/69/es/text/">mention</a> confirms the <i>inchis</i> = <i>maní</i> identity. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_de_Acosta">José de Acosta</a>, a missionary to Peru, shows the odd mix of source languages for the vegetable words he uses in his <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/6776283">Historia natural y moral de las Indias</a></i> (1590), including <i>maní</i>:</p><blockquote><p><b>De diuerſas rayzes que ſe dan en Indias</b></p><p>… alla ay tantas, que no ſabre contarlas. Las que agora me ocurren, vltra delas Papas que ſon lo principal, ſon ocas, y yanaocas, y camotes y vatatas, y xiquimas, y yuca, y cochuchu, y cavi, y totora, y mani, y otros cien generos que no me acuerdo. (Book IV Chap 18, p. 242; modernized edition <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=rBgOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA363&vq=mani">here</a>; also <a href="http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/56871675095670451599979/p0000002.htm#I_91_">here</a>)</p><p><b>Of the different roots that grow in the Indies</b></p><p>… but there so many exist that I cannot count them. Those that occur to me now, in addition to potatoes, which are the chief roots, are <i>ocas</i> and <i>yanaocas</i> and yams and sweet potatoes and jícama and yucca and <i>cochuchu</i> and <i>cavi</i> and <i>totora</i> and peanuts and a hundred other kinds that I cannot recall. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=F1PdszeyE1YC&pg=PA202&vq=peanuts&sig=junSVrdGlKMD4xrll5LErV6-oKk">López-`Morillas</a>)</p></blockquote><p><i>Maní</i> even enjoys a marginal existence in English; it is in the OED mostly because of early translations from Spanish, starting with Grimeston's version of Acosta:</p><blockquote><p>Of divers Rootes which growe at the Indies</p><p>But in those countries they have so many divers sortes, as I cannot reckon them; those which I now remember besides <i>Papas</i>, which is the principall, there is <i>Ocas</i>, <i>Yanococas</i>, <i>Camotes</i>, <i>Vatas</i>, <i>Xiquimas</i>, <i>Yuca</i>, <i>Cochuha</i>, <i>Cavi</i>, <i>Totora</i>, <i>Mani</i>, and an infinite number of other kindes, as the <i>Patattres</i>, which they eate as a delicate and toothsome meate. (pp. 260-261; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=rZc5NQMnEAsC&pg=RA1-PA160&vq=mani&sig=LXqXNHvWOujCM7ZLZ7MjdxRNPFE">preview</a>; <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:494:143">EEBO</a>)</p></blockquote><p>In South America, there are a number of closely related / borrowed peanut words: Taino <i style="font-family:Code2000">maṉu´u̯i</i>, variously spelled <i>mandobi</i>, <i>manobi</i>, <i>mandowi</i>, <i>mundubi</i>, <i>munui</i>; Guaraní <i>manubi</i>; “Chiriguano” (that is, Argentinean Guaraní) <i>manduvi</i>; Pilagá <i>mandovi</i>. <a href="http://acad.uncor.edu/academicos/resenia/krapovickas">Antonio Krapovickas</a>, in a paper “The origin, variability and spread of the groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)” in <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/60634"><i>The domestication and exploitation of plants and animals</i></a>, from 1969 (and so before heavy-duty genetics), lists (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&ei=sMmjR7bmG4nIyATMn9jqBw&id=awBJAAAAMAAJ&q=manobi+mani&pgis=1#search">snippet</a>) these and some unrelated terms like Aymara <i>cho'kopa</i> (“Choccopa”) and Tucano <i>yatubu</i>. He suggests that insight on the spread can be gained by comparing the common words with linguistic affiliations, though I wonder whether there aren't too many extraneous factors involved. Much of the wordlist comes from a trio of papers by <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Chevalier">Auguste Chevalier</a> in <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/1643022">Revue Internationale de Botanique Appliquée et d'Agricolture Tropicale</a></i> from 1933-1936 titled, “Monographie de l'Arachide,” and in particular the section, “Noms de l'Arachide Dans les Differents Pays” (pp. 740-747), which list hundreds of peanut words. It would be a valuable resource, but I haven't tracked down any copies yet.<p><a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulrich_Schmidl">Ulrich Schmidl</a>, a German mercenary in the service of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_de_Mendoza">Pedro de Mendoza</a> up the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_la_Plata">Río de la Plata</a>, describes the peanut in his account of 1542 from his <a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/80672547">Weltbuch</a> (1567):</p><blockquote><p>unnd khamen erstlich zu einer nazion, die heist Suruchakuiss; diese hatten vonn dem türchischenn khornn unnd mandeoch, auch ander wutzeln, als mannduies, its einer hazelnuß gleich, item fischs unnd fleischs. (from the 1889 <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=uUgCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA60&vq=mannduies">edition</a>; there does not seem to be an older facsimile scanned online)</p><p>They came first to a people called Surukufers, who had Turkish corn, manioc, and other roots, such as mandues, which resemble hazel-nuts, and also fish and meat. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=sgQ7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA37&vq=mandues|manduis">Dominguez</a> for the Hakluyt Society 1891)</p><p>These therefore in the beginning come to a Nation, called Surucusis, having Maiz, Mandeoch, and other Roots of that kind, and Mandues also (which are like our Filbirds) and fish and flesh. (from a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=JLgLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA27&vq=mandues|manduis">reprint</a> of the 1625 translation in <i>Purchas his Pilgrimes</i>)</p></blockquote><p>So too <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Álvar_Núñez_Cabeza_de_Vaca">Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca</a>, the governor of Río de la Plata, in his 1555 <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/6308196"><i>Comentarios</i></a>:</p><blockquote><p>los quales les dan en trueque de lo que traen, mucho maiz y mandioca e mandubis, que es una fruta como auellanas o chufas, que se cria debaxo de la tierro; (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=wEcOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA231&dq=mandubis">p. 231</a> of a later edition)</p><p>These give them, in exchange for their commodities, maize, manioc, and mandubis; these last are like hazel nuts or <i>chufas</i>, and grow near the ground; (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=sgQ7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA155&vq=mandubis">Dominguez</a> for the Hakluyt Society 1891)</p></blockquote><p><i>Chufa</i> is Spanish for <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chufa">Cyperus esculentus</a></i>.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_Léry">Jean de Léry</a> was a Huguenot missionary in the colony founded by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Durand_de_Villegaignon">de Villegaignon</a> in Rio de Janeiro bay. His <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_d'un_voyage_faict_en_la_terre_du_Brésil"><i>Histoire d'vn voyage fait en la terre dv Bresil, avtrement dite Amerique</i></a>, first published in 1578, included a more detailed description:</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Les</span> ſauuages ont ſemblablement vne ſorte de fruicts, qu'ils nomment <i>Manobi</i>, leſquelles crioſſans dans terre comme truffes, & par petits filemens s'entretenans l'vn l'autre, n'ont pas le noyau plus gros que celuy de noiſettes franches, & de meſme gouſt. Neantmoins ils ſont de couleur griſaſtre, & n'en eſt pas le crioſe plus dure que la gouſſe d'vn pois: mais de dite maintenãt s'ils ont fueilles & graines, combien que i'aye beaucoup de fois mangé de ce fruict, ie confeſſe ne l'auoir pas bien obſerué, & ne m'em ſouuient pas. (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k52545t/f265.table">p. 192</a>)</p><p>The savages have likewise a kind of fruit that they call <i>manobi</i>, which grows in the earth like truffles, and are connected to each other by little filaments; the kernel is no bigger than that of our hazelnuts, and has the same taste. They are of a grayish color, and the husk is no harder than the shell of a pea; but as to whether they have leaves and seeds, even though I have eaten of this fruit many times, I must confess that I didn't observe it well enough, and I don't remember. (tr. <a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/21228568">Whatley</a> p. 110)</p></blockquote><p>The first mention in Portuguese was written by the Jesuit <a href="http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernão_Cardim">Fernão Cardim</a> around 1584. Cardim was captured by corsairs in 1601 and his work was actually published in English translation in 1623 by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Purchas">Samuel Purchas</a>; the Portuguese was finally published 1881 as <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/15022427">Do principio e origem dos indios do Brasil</a></i>. He mentions:</p><blockquote><p>e certa fruita como amendoas q̃ chamaõ mendubis (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RaEjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22e+certa+fruita+como+amendoas%22+mendubis&ei=5OyfR-XQFZO0yQTwm92dDg&pgis=1">snippet</a> from <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/4394300">Dicionário histórico das palavras portuguesas de origem tupi</a></i>)</p><p>and a certaine fruit like Almonds which they call Amendnins (<i>Purchas His Pilgrimes</i>, Vol. XVI, p. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=l8IOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA440&vq=almonds">440</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Not only are almonds similar to peanuts, but the word <i>amendoa</i> is similar to <i>mendubi</i>, leading to the form <i>amendoim</i>, the ordinary Portuguese word for 'peanut'.<p>A full description is given by <a href="http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Soares_de_Sousa">Gabriel Soares de Sousa</a> in <a href="http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notícia_do_Brasil"><i>Notícia do Brasil</i></a> (1587):</p><blockquote><p>Em que se declara a natureza dos amendões, e o para que serve.</p><p>Dos amendões temos que dar conta particular, porque he couza, que se não sabe haver sanão no Brazil, os quaes nascem debaixo da terra, onde se plantão á mão, hum palmo do outro, as suas folhas são como as dos feijões de Hespanha, e tem os ramos ao longo do chão. Cada pé dá hum grande prato d'estes amendões, que nascem nas pontas das raizes, os quaes são tamanhos como bolotas, e tem casca da mesma grossura, e dureza, mas he branca e crespa, e tem dentro de cada bainha tres e quatro amendões, que são de feição dos pinhões com casca, e ainda mais grossos. Tem huma tona parda, que se lhe sahe como a do miolo dos pinhões, o qual miolo he alvo. Comidos crus tem sabor de hervanços, mas comem-se assados, e cozidos com casca como as castanhas, e são muito sabrosos, e torrados fóra da casca, são melhores. De huma maneira, e outra he esta fruta muito quente em demazia, e cauza dór de cabeça, a quem come muitos, se he doente della. Plantão-se estes amendões em terra solta, e humida, em a qual planta, e beneficio della não entra homem macho, só as indias os costumão plantar, e as mistiças, e nesta lavoura não entendem os maridos, e tem para si, que se elles, ou seus escravos os plantarem, que não hão de nascer. Tambem as femeas os vão apanhar, e segundo seu uzo hão de ser as mesmas, que os plantarem, e para durarem todo o anno curão-nos no fumo, onde estão até vir outra novidade. D'esta fruta fazem as mulheres portuguezas todas as castas de doces, que fazem das amendoas, e cortados os fazem cobertos de assucar de mistura como os confeitos. E tambem os curão em peças delgadas, e compridas, de que fazem pinhoadas; quem os não conhece por tal a come se lha dão. O proprio tempo, em que os amendões se plantão, he em Fevereiro, e não estão debaixo da terra mais que até Maio, que que he o tempo, em que colhem a novidade, o que as temeas vão fazer com grande festa. (Chap. 47; 1825 edition, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=q64EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA153&vq=amend%C3%B5es">p. 153</a>; more modern spelling <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=BWgDAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA175&vq=amendois">here</a>)</p><p>In which is stated the nature of the Amendois (peanut) and their use.</p><p>We have to pay special attention to the peanut because it is known only in Brazil, which sprout under ground where they are planted by hand, a hand's breadth apart, the leaves are similar to those of the Spanish beans and have runners along the ground. Each plant produces a big plate of these peanuts, which grow on the ends of the roots and are the size of acorns, and has a hull of similar thickness and hardness, but it is white and curled and has inside each shell 3 or 4 peanuts, which have the appearance of “pinhões” (pine nuts), with the hulls, but thicker. They have a brownish skin from which they are easily removed as with the “pinhões”, the inner part of which is white. Eaten raw, they have the same taste as raw chickpeas, but they are usually eaten roasted and cooked in the shell, like chestnuts and are very tasty, and toasted outside of the shell they are better. In one manner or another, this fruit is excessively hot, and produce headache to anyone eating too many of them if they become sick from them. These peanuts are planted in a loose, humid soil the preparation of which has not involved any male human being, only the female Indian and halfbreed females plant them; and the husbands know nothing about these labors, if the husbands or their male slaves were to plant them they would not sprout. The females also harvest them, and as is the custom, the same ones that planted them; and to last all year they are cured in smoke and kept there until the new crop.</p><p>Portuguese women make all the sweet things from this fruit which are made from almonds, and which are cut and covered with a sugar mixture as confections (Street Urchin's Foot). And also they are cured in long, thin pieces, from which are made “candied pine nuts”, and those that are not familiar with them will eat them as that (will not recognize that they are not “pine nuts”, but peanuts). February is the right time to plant peanuts, and they are not beneath the ground any longer than May, which is time to harvest the crop, which the females do with a much celebration. (tr. Stewart in Hammons)</p></blockquote><p>In Nahuatl, peanut is <i><a href="http://sites.estvideo.net/malinal/tl/nahuatlTLAL.html#TLALCACAHUATL">tlalcacahuatl</a></i> 'earth cacao-bean'. The second part gives Castilian and Mexican Spanish <i><a href="http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3&LEMA=cacahuate">cacahuete</a></i>, whence French <i><a href="http://www.cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/cacahu%E8te">cacahuète</a></i>. From the written record, peanuts do not appear to have been very important in early Mexico. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahagún">Bernardino de Sahagún</a>'s <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florentine_Codex">Florentine Codex</a></i> only mentions their medicinal use:<blockquote><p><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Tlalcacaoatl</span>,<p>çan tlanelhoatl, ololtontli, in jeoaio tliltic, auh in jtic iztac, in jxiuhio xoxoctic, çan iaoaltotonti: vmpa mochioa in xaltenco.<p>Itech monequj in aqujn motlevia, atle moneloa, çã mjxcavia: moteci, atl ipan conj, in cocoxquj, in conjc caxixa in cocolli.<p>It is just a root, small and round. Its skin is black and its interior white; its leaves are green, small and round. It grows there at Xaltenco.<p>He who has a fever requires it. Nothing is mixed in; only it alone [is used], ground up. The sick one drinks it in water. When he has drunk it, he expels the ailment in the urine. (Book XI, Chap. 7, Para. 5, Sect. 9, p. 143 of the <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/3487458">translation</a>)</blockquote><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Hernández_de_Toledo">Francisco Hernández</a> even suggests that the Spanish were responsible for bringing it, although the archeological record indicates that this was not the case:<blockquote><p><i>De <span style="font-variant:small-caps">tlalcacahoatl</span>, seu Cacahoatl humili.</i></p><p>Ita vocant Mexicanses herbam, cujus fructum <i>Haitini</i> <i>Manies</i> nuncupant, ob similitudinem, quam habet cum <i>Tlalcacahoatl</i>, sed praecipue radicibus, quae tamen huic sunt strobilis, et figura, et nucleorum gustu similes; neque aliter saccharo condiri solent, venerem excitare, gustuque dulci, et jucundo placere, et, si intemperanter edantur, caput afficere dolore. Nascitur apud <i>Quauhnahuacenses</i>, etsi <i>Haitinae</i> insulae fuerit tantum antea incola. (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96912r/f160.item">Book VI. Chap. 89</a>)</p><p>To this herb, whose fruit the Haitians call manies, the Mexicans give the name tlalcacahoatl because they are similar to those that are called the second type of tlalcacahoatl. This similarity is especially seen in the roots. These are similar to pine nuts not only in shape but also in the taste, which is like almonds. These are also prepared with sugar and excite the sexual appetite. They are pleasing because of their sweet and appetizing taste. If they are eaten in excess, they produce headaches. They grow in the lands of Cuernavaca even though they were previously found only on the island of Haiti. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=TKE_J2M6P-8C&pg=PA258&vq=tlalcacahoatl&sig=GAmCnk_ZTDoqIIPmZTJfph_ZEaE">Varey</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The earliest mention of peanuts having made it to Europe appears to be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolás_Monardes">Nicolás Monardes</a>' 1574 <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/18358633">Historia medicinal de las cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales</a></i>, which was translated into English in 1577 by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Frampton">John Frampton</a> as <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/8769237">Ioyfvll nevves ovt of the newe founde worlde</a></i>:</p><blockquote><p><b>De la fruta que se cria debaxo de tierra.</b></p><p>EMbiaron me del Peru vna fructa muy gracioſa, que ſe cria debaxo de tierra, y muy hermoſa de ver, y muy ſabroſa de comer, eſta fructa ni tiene rayz ni produze planta alguna, ni planta la produze a ella, ſino que ſe cria debaxo de tierra como ſe crian las turmas que llaman de tierra: ella es del tamaño de medio dedo, redonda, retorcida toda ella, con muy linda labor, el color es vayo: tiene dentro vna pepita que quando ſeca ſuena: la qual es como vna la mendra, que tiene la caſcara leonada y es blanca, partida en dos partes como vna almendra. Es fructo ſabroſo y de buen guſto, comiendola parece que ſe comen auellanas.</p><p>Naſce eſta fructa debaxo de tierra, en la coſta del rio Marañon, yno la ay en otra parte de todas las Indias: comeſe verde y ſeca, y lo mejor es toſtar la: daſe ſobre meſa como fructa de poſtre, porque enxuga mucho el eſtomago y lo dexa con contento: pero ſi ſe come mucho della da peſadumbre a la cabeça. Es fructa tenida en mucho aſsi entre los Indios como entre los Eſpañoles, y cõ razon porque yo he comido delas que me han traydo y tienen buen guſto: parece fructa templada. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pEHeQNiTzA0C&pg=RA2-PA104&vq=fructa+debaxo+de+tierra#PRA2-PA103-IA3,M1">p. 104</a>)</p><p><b>Of a fruite which groweth vnder the ground.</b></p><p>THey ſent me from the <i>Peru</i>, a fruite very good, that groweth vnder the earth, and very faire to beholde, and of a very good taſte in eating. This fruite hath no roote, nor doeth produce any plante, nor plante doth produce it, but that it groweth vnder the ground as the <i>Turmas</i> doe grow vnder the earth, which are called the <i>Turmas</i> of the earth. It is of the greatneſſe of halfe a finger rounde, and rounde about it is wrought with a very fayre worke, it is of a bay colour: It hath within it a little kernel, which when it is dry, maketh a ſounde within, lyke to an Almonde: the rinde of it is tawny, and ſomwhat white, parted into twoo partes lyke vnto an Almonde. It is a fruite of goood ſauour and taſte, and eating of it, it ſeemeth that you eate Nuttes.</p><p>This fruite groweth vnder the earth, in the coaſt of the Riuer of <i>Maronnon</i>, and it is not in any other part of al the Indias. It is to be eaten greene and dry, and the beſte way is to toſte it. It is eaten alwaies after meates, as fruite eaten laſt of all, becauſe it dryeth much the ſtomacke and leaueth it ſatiſfied, but if you eate much of it, then it bringeth heauineſſe to the head. It is a fruite in great reputation, as wel amongſt the Indians, as the Spaniardes, and with greate reaſon, for I haue eaten of them, which they haue brought mee, and they haue a good taſte. It ſeemeth to be a temperate fruite. (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:13116:83">Fol. 93-94</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The peanut was of course included in the herbals and botanical works that emerged at the start of the 17th century. In 1605, Charles de l'Écluse (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusius">Clusius</a>) published his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoticorum_libri_decem"><i>Exoticorum libri decem</i></a>. It includes a Latin translation of Monardes; for the section given above, it has:</p><blockquote><p><i>Fructus ſub terra naſcens.</i></p><p><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Missus</span> eſt ex Peru fructus ſub terra naſcens, pulcher admodum aſpectu, qui radice caret, & nullam plantam profert, nec ab ulla planta producitur, ſed ſub terra dumtaxat gignitur tuberum inſtar: dimidii digiti magnitudinem æquans, rotundus, & affabrè elaboratus, ſpadicei coloris, nucleum in ſe continens, ſtrepitum, dum movetur fructus ſiccus, facientem, amygdalæ ſimilem, fuſco cortice, intùs album, & in duas partes diviſum, veluti amygdala. Grati ſaporis eſt, & avellanam guſtu refert.</p><p><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Nusquam</span> per univerſam Americam inveniri dicitur, præterquam apud flumen <i>Marañon</i>: recens & reſiccatus editur, torreri autem præſtat: adponitur ſecundis menſis bellariorum loco, quoniam ventriculum valdè exſiccat & roborat: ſed ſi liberaliùs edatur, capitis gravedinem generat.</p><p>Magno æſtimant eum Americani & Hiſpani, nec immeritò: nam eos qui ad me mittebantur deguſtans, grati ſaporis eſſe deprehendebam.</p><p>Temperatus eſſe videtur. (Chap. 60, <a href="http://imgbase-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr/displayimage.php?album=338&pos=360">p. 344</a>)</p></blockquote><p>To this Clusius adds a note suggesting that the plant is the same as de Léry's <i>manobi</i>, whose description (see above) he also translates:</p><blockquote><p>* <span style="font-variant:small-caps">An</span> <i>is fructus quem Lerius Americana Hiſtoria cap. XIII. deſcribit his verbis?</i></p><p><i>Habent præterea Braſiliani fructus quoſdam ſub terra, Tuberum mode, naſcentes, Manobi ab illis appellatos, tenuibus filamentis ſimul cohærentes, & nucleum continentes domeſtica avellana haud maiorem, eiuſdémque ſaporis, tenero ut piſorum ſiliqua cortice, cineracei coloris: an verò folia vel ſemen proferant, ignorare me fateor, licet fructum frequenter ederim.</i></p><p>* <span style="font-variant:small-caps">Note</span>: Is this the fruit which de Léry described in his <i>American History</i> Chap. 13 with these words:</p><p>…</p></blockquote><p>In his original content, he pictures what may be a peanut seed (Book II, <a href="http://imgbase-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr/displayimage.php?album=338&pos=72">p. 57</a>, fig. V), with the following description</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Quintus</span>, nucleus dumtaxat erat ſuo putamine exemptus, firmus, tenui membranâ fuſcâ & multis venis diſtinctâ, firmiterq́ue ipſi nucleo inhærente, tectus: ipſa ſubſtantia firma erat, candida, pulpæ nucis Indicæ ſive cocci, ſimilis, nullo quidem odore prædita, ſed ſatis grato ſapore.</p><p>Hunc nucleum anno M.D.XCVIII deprehendebam ejus nucis eſſe, quæ Tertio loco, ſive pro Tertio hujus capitis fructu deſcripta eſt: nam multi ſimiles nuclei, partim ſui putaminis fragmentum adhuc retinẽtes, maxima autem ex parte nudi, & à ſuo putamine liberi, nonnulli etiam integrum corticem adhuc habentes adferebantur nave quadam ex inſula Divi Thomæ advecta, quibus Luſitani quidam eâdam nave vecti, ſua mancipia cum radicis cujuſdam farina commixtis aluerant in itinere. Eſt autem fructus Palmæ Adil nuncupatæ.</p><p>Fifth, the kernel has merely been removed from its shell, a strong covering distinguished by its dark thin membrane and many veins, and cleaving firmly to the kernel; the substance itself is firm, shining white, as if the flesh of the Indian nut is baked, endowed indeed with no odor, but filled with a pleasing taste.</p><p>In 1598 I understood this kernel to be of the nut in the third place, or the fruit that is described in the third number of this chapter: now there are some very similar kernels, partly retaining pieces of their shell here, however for the most part bare, and freed from their shell, but some having the whole shell, brought from a certain ship from the island of São Tomé; certain Portuguese were carried by the same ship, whose slaves ate them on the journey mixed with some meal of certain roots. There was also a fruit by the name of the Adil Palm. (tr. after Smith in Hammons, who omits the second paragraph)</p></blockquote><p>This last paragraph clarifies a passage in his earlier (1601) <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/32446345"><i>Rariorum plantarum historia</i></a>: in a chapter on yams, on a page already referred to in the <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/07/potato.html">potato</a> post, there is a section titled <br><i>Natales</i> 'origin' that briefly mentions what are presumably peanuts and emphasizes the horrible situation that underlies this stage of their spread:</p><blockquote><p>D. Thomae inſulanos eâ aſsâ & elixâ veſci intelligebam, ejúſque rei gratiâ Luſitani quidam, qui multos iſtic cum viros, tum feminas & pueros emerant, ut Vlyſipone pro mancipijs venderent, iſtas radices in naves intulerant in miſerorum alimentum, praetera nuces quaſpiam, quibus cum radicis cujuſdam farinâ veſcerentur. Omnes autem illae naves eodem anno in Walachriam deletae. (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96522z/f456.chemindefer">Book IIII, p. lxxix</a>)</p><p>I understood that the islanders of São Tomé ate these roasted or boiled, on account of this circumstance: there were some Portuguese who had bought many men, besides women and children, so that they might sell them as slaves in Lisbon. They carried these roots in their ships as food for the wretches, besides some nuts, which they ate with meal of certain roots. But all those ships were destroyed in Walcheren that year.</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspard_Bauhin">Caspar Bauhin</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/4687514">Pinax</a></i> (1623) quotes (Book III, Sect. I, Radices Variae Quibus 'various roots [by which]', <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k97448m/f113.table">p. 90</a>) Acosta's list, which includes <i>Mani</i>; and Schmidl's (in Latin, <i>Ulricus Faber</i>) which includes <i>Mandu[r]is</i>; and includes (Para. XV, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k97448m/f114.table">p. 91</a>), “Mandues, Carios populi edunt” 'the Carios people eat [them]'.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joannes_de_Laet">Joannes de Laet</a>, a director of the Dutch West India Company, published the first edition of <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/20890174">Nieuwe Wereldt ofte Beschrijvinghe van West-Indien</a></i> in 1625. This edition is online in the <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/nieuvvewereldtof00laetrich">Internet Archive</a>. However, it is the second <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/14462720">Dutch</a> edition of 1630, and the 1633 <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/34895874">Latin</a> and 1640 <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/3195830">French</a> editions which have an more recognizable illustration of a peanut fruit and remarkably none of them is.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Parkinson_(botanist)">John Parkinson</a>'s <i><a href="http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/3316161">Theatrum Botanicum</a></i> (1640) illustrates and describes the peanut, giving an early form of its scientific name:</p><blockquote><p>3. <i>Arachus</i> <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ὑπόγαιος</span> <i>Americanus</i>, Vnderground Cicheling of <i>America</i> or <i>Indian</i> Earthnuts.</p><p>The Indian Earth-nuts (the figure whereof I give you, together as they are termed to us by them that have brought them us) are very likely to grow from ſuch like plants as are formerly deſcribed, not onely by the name but by the ſight and taſte of the thing it ſelfe, for wee have not yet ſeene the face thereof above ground, yet the fruit, or Peaſe-cods (as I may ſo call it) is farre larger, whoſe outer huſke is thicke and ſomewhat long, round at both ends, or a little hooked at the lower end, of a ſullen whitiſh colour on the outſide, ſtriped, and as it were wrinckled, bunching out into two parts, where the two nuts (for they are bigger than any Filberd kernell) of Peaſe doe lie joyning cloſe one unto another, being ſomewhat long, with the roundneſſe firme and ſolide, and of a darke reddiſh colour on the out ſide, and white within taſting ſweet like a Nut, but more oily.</p><p>…</p><p><i>The Names</i></p><p>The firſt is truely taken from <i>Bellus</i>, aforeſaid, to be the <i>Arachidna</i> (or <i>Arachydna</i> as <i>Columna</i> hath it) or <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">τῶ ἀράχω ὁμοίος</span>, <i>Aracoides</i>, or <i>Araco ſimilis</i> of Theophraſtus mentioned in his firſt Booke and eleventh Chapter, no other plant yet knowne, agreeing ſo rightly thereunto, and deſcribeth it, but the fruit groweth as much neere under the ground joyning to the ſmall fibers thereof as above : and yet he there ſaith alſo, that neither of them beare any leafe, nor any thing like leaves : which how this can ſtand with ſence and reaſon I know not, and therefore many doe ſuſpect the text to be faultie, or elſe he is contrary to himſelfe, for he ſaith they beare no leſſe fruit under ground then above, and then they muſt beare fruit above ground, which how it can be without leaves I ſee not, for never read, heard, or ſaw, that any plant bore fruit above ground without ſtalked and leaves; the compariſon unto <i>Aracus</i> alſo carrying the more probabilitie : but ſurely he was miſinformed by thoſe that gathered the rootes with the fruit on them when the ſtalkes and leaves were withered and gone, he never ſeeing the plant, as it is likely, or gathering it himſelfe : the etimologie alſo of the name being compoſed of <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">Ἀράχος</span> and <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ὗδνον</span>, <i>Aracus</i> and <i>hudnon</i>, which is <i>tuber</i>, confirmeth a ſuppoſall in me, that he meant this underground fruit was like the fruit of the foregoing <i>Aracus</i> above ground, and ſuch like is the under ground fruit hereof in cods with peaſe in them : but <i>Columna</i> maketh the <i>Terræ glandes</i> before declared to be rather this <i>Arachydna</i>, both from the ſolid rootes under ground, and the likeneſſe of the plant under <i>Aracus</i> : and ſurely it may be that both theſe were meant by <i>Theophraſtus</i>, for he maketh two ſorts, and both alike in bearing fruit under g[r]ound, that is, <i>Arachidna</i> and <i>Araco ſimilis</i>, or <i>Aracoides</i> : and we have alſo two plants, as I here ſhew you, <i>Aracus</i> before this, and <i>Arachus</i> after it, unto which they may be referred : the other two ſorts are entituled as I thinketh it fitteſt for them : the <i>Candiots</i>, as <i>Bellus</i> ſaith, call the firſt <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἀγριόφακι</span>, <i>Agriophaci</i>; the ſecond was ſent me by the name of <i>Lathyrus ſub terra ſiliquifera</i>; the laſt is generally called by our <i>Engliſh</i> Sea-men that goe into thoſe parts Earth-nuts, erroniouſly enough, as they doe moſt other things that they meete with. (Chap. XI, <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:22703:545">pp. 1069-1070</a> in EEBO)</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Marcgrave">Georg Marcgrave</a>'s 1648 <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/4011672"><i>Historia Naturalis Brasiliae</i></a> includes (Book I, <a href="http://www.botanicus.org/page/289130">p. 37</a>) a illustration (nicely colored in the botanicus copy), incorrectly showing the pods growing on the roots, with the following description:</p><blockquote><p><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Mvndvbi</span> Braſilienſibus Herba, in pedalem aut bipedalem altitudinem adſurgit, caule quadrato aut ſtriato, ex viridi ruffeſcente, & piloſo. Hinc inde enaſcuntur ramuli primo quaſi caulem amplectentes & foliolis anguſtis, acuminatis ſtipati; mox habent nodum ac trium vel quatuor digitorum longitudine extenduntur; continetq; quilibet ramulus quatuor folia, duo ſemper ſibi oppoſita, paulo plus quam duos digitos longa, ſeſquidigitum lata, ſuperne læte viridia, inſtar trifolii, inferne paulum caneſcentia, nervo conſpicuo & ſubtilibus venulis quaſi parallelis dotata, raris quoque pilis veſtita. Ad exortum ramulorum qui folia gerunt prodit pediculus ſeſquidigitum circiter longus, tenuis, floſculum gerens flavum & per oras rubentem, duobus foliolis conſtantem, more viciorum aut trifolii. Radix illius haud longa, tenuis, contorta, filamentoſa, cui adnaſcuntur folliculi ex albicante gryſei, figura minimæ cucurbitæ, oblongæ, magnitudine Myrobalani, fragiles: quilibet autem continet in ſe duos nucleos, pellicula ſaturate purpurea veſtitos, carne intus alba, oleaginoſa, ſapore piſtaceorum, qui comeduntur cocti & inter bellaria apponuntur. Multum tamen comeſti capitis dolores cauſare ajunt. Fructu integro quaſſato nuclei intus ſtrepunt.</p><p>Confer Monard. cap. LX. <i>Anchic</i> Peruvianis, Hiſpanis ibi <i>Mani</i> vocatur, uti traditum lib. X. cap. 2 Deſcriptionis Americæ.</p><p><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Mandubi</span> — A Brazilian herb rising to a foot or two feet in height, stem quadrangular or striate, from green becoming reddish, and hairy. From different directions branchlets are sprouted forth, at first as if enclosing the stem and accompanied by narrow, acuminate leaflets (folioles); soon they have a node and are extended three or four inches (digits) in length; in a row; four leaves on any branchlet, two always opposite each other, a little more than two inches long, an inch and a half broad, a pleasing green above, like trefoil (“trifolii”), becoming a little whitened below, finished with almost parallel, conspicuous nerves and fine veinlets, covered also with scattered hairs. Near the coming forth of the branchlets which bear the leaves, a pedicel appears about an inch and half long attenuated bearing a little yellow flower, reddish along the edges, consisting of two leafletes (folioles) in the manner of vetch or trefoil. The root of this (plant) by no means long, attenuated, intricate, filamentous, from which pods are grown from somewhat whitish (to) grey, of the form of the smallest cucurbits, oblong, fragile, of the size of a balsam fruit (“myrobalanus”): any one contains also two kernels, covered with a rich dark red (dark brown or purple) skin, the flesh within white, oleaginous, tasting of pistachio nuts, which are recommended baked and are served during dessert. They say that consuming many, however, causes pains of the head (headaches). The whole fruit being shaken, the seeds rattle within.</p><p>Compare Monardes cap. LX. <i>Anchic</i> of Peru, the same is called <i>Mani</i> in Spanish, as reported lib. X. cap. 2 of the description of America. (tr. Smith)</p></blockquote><p>The 1658 <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/14302652">De Indiae Utriusque Re Naturali et Medica</a></i>, which combines <i>Historia Naturalis Brasiliae</i> and Willem Piso's <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/79186328">De Medicina Brasiliensi</a></i>, which were issued bound together in 1648, into a single work, also includes Marcgrave's description, together with an improved illustration that adds in de Laet's pods and an open three-seed pod. Based on online indices, this work used to be in <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/scripts/ConsultationTout.exe?O=n098749">Gallica</a>, but is no longer available. Since it is 450 years old, I'd like to think that the problem is technical and not legal, but I bet it isn't.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Bauhin">Johann Bauhin</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/14317656">Historia Plantarum Universalis</a></i> (1650) doubts Clusius' identification of the plant de Léry described as the one Monardes received:</p><blockquote><p>MANOBI LERII</p><p><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Fr</span>uctum quendam Syluestribus <i>Manobi</i> appelatum, ait, Lerius Amer. Hist. sub terra Tuberum modò nasci, tenuibus filamentis simul cohærere, nucleum non esse maiorem domestica Auellana, euisdemque saporis, cinerei coloris, cortice non duriore, quàm Pisorum siliquae: an verò folia, semen[q]ue proferat ignorare se fatetur, licet frequenter fructum ederit. Clus. Lerium intrepretatus, vertit aliter quàm nos: Fructum nucleũ continere, ac Manobi sibi videri idem cum fructu Amygdaloide. Nos dubitamus an Monardes bene descripserit suum fructum, qui nobis videtur potius arboreus: fortè Manobi erit <i>Trasi</i> genus aliquod. <i>Trasi</i> autem sunt veluti fructus & nuclei Auellanarum. (Vol. I, Book III, Chap. 31, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k980044/f300.item">p. 292</a>)</p><p>A certain fruit called by the natives Manobi, de Léry's <i>American History</i> says is born under the earth in the fashion of a tuber, at the same time held together by thin filaments, the kernel is no bigger than a domestic hazelnut, and of the same taste, of gray color, with a shell no harder, than pea pods: in truth he confesses that he does not know how the leaves and seeds form, though he has eaten them often. Clusius explained de Lery other than we do: a fruit contains the kernel, and Manobi itself seems to be the same as an almond-like fruit. We doubt perhaps that Monardes described his fruit well: which seems to us more likely to be tree-like: perhaps Manobi will be some kind of <i>Trasi</i>? Moreover <i>Trasi</i> are like the fruit and seed of hazelnuts.</p></blockquote><p><i>Trasi</i> is Italian for <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyperus_esculentus">Cyperus esculentus</a></i>; so <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gerard">Gerard</a>, <i>“Cyperus Eſculentus</i>, Italian Traſi, or Spaniſh Galingall” (<i>Herbal, Book</i> I, Chap. 25, <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:23022:38">p. 32</a> of the 1633 edition; <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galingale">galingale</a></i> < Arabic/Persian قولنجان <i style="font-family:Code2000">qūlanjān</i> / خلنجان <i style="font-family:Code2000">ḫulunǧān</i>, Sanskrit कुलञ्ज <i style="font-family:Code2000">kulañja</i> < Chinese 高良薑 <i>gao1liang2jiang1</i> 'Gaoliang ginger' means two kinds of rhizomes: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galangal">galangal</a> and, as here, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyperus">Cyperus</a></i>).</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jonston">Joannes Jonstonus</a>' 1662 <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/8128678"><i>Dendrographias</i></a> collated the descriptions in many of the earlier works and thereby served as a basis for some later ones. It does not appear to be online yet.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray">John Ray</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/12648786">Historia Plantarum</a></i> (1686) is another book that apparently used to be in <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/scripts/ConsultationTout.exe?O=n098777">Gallica</a> but has been removed; it is still in EEBO, though, so I hope they aren't the ones responsible. Following Parkinson, he describes the peanut in “<i>De Leguminibus supra infráque terram fructum ferentibus, seu Arachydna</i>. … 3. <i>Aracus</i> <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ὑπόγαιος</span> <i>Americanus</i> Park. <i>Mundubi Braſilienſibus</i> Marggr.” and also relates other descriptions (Vol. I, Book XVIII, Chap. 4, <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:35009:483">pp. 918-919</a>)</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Plukenet">Leonard Plukenet</a>, who collaborated with Ray on later volumes of <i>Historia Plantarum</i>, published his own <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/12813743"><i>Phytographia</i></a> in 1691. He classifies the peanut as <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senna_(genus)">Senna</a></i>, listing those earlier descriptions under <i>Sena tetraphyllas</i> (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:33999:173">pp. 341-342</a> and <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:94117:66">Plate 60</a>, Fig. 1).</p><p>In 1703, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Plumier">Charles Plumier</a>, returning from the last of his several trips to the New World, published <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/2996275"><i>Nova plantarum Americanarum genera</i></a>. He classified the peanut as <i>Arachidna quadrifolia</i> (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96578k/f56.table">p. 49</a> and Plate <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96578k/f123.table">Plate 37</a>).</p><p>In fact, the 17th century saw a new generation of naturalists journeying to America. <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04074b.htm">Bernabé Cobo</a>, as Jesuit who lived most of his life in Spanish America, completed a work in 1653 which was eventually published in 1890 as <a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/11589042"><i>Historia del Nuevo Mundo</i></a>. He writes:</p><blockquote><p><i>Del Maní</i></p><p><span style="font-variant:small-caps">El</span> <i>Maní</i> es una raíz muy diferente de todas las demás de Indias; la mata es baja y muy aparrada con la tierra; produce muchos tallos y hojas, de manera que se viene á hacer muy cerrada. Son los tallos de dos tercias de largo, y son más los que se extienden por el suelo que los que suben hacia arriba; son redondos y tan gruesos como juncos, de color rojo, pero no lisos, sino algo vellosos y con mucha hoja, la cual en talle y grandor se parece á la del lentisco, salvo que es más delgada y un poco mayor y de un verde escuro. La fruta desta mata son unas raicitas cada una del tamaño del dedo meñique, algo más corta, con una cascarilla blanquecina muy arrugada y tan delgada y sutil, que apretada ligeramente entre los dedos se quiebra; dentro della tiene cada raíz dos ó tres pepitas muy parecidas en todo á los piñones, cubiertas de un hollejico rojo muy sutil, como el de la almendra, que quitado, queda la pepita muy blanca como piñón mondado, la cual se divide en dos partes como la haba. Cómese esta raíz por fruta regalada y de muy buen sabor, cocida y tostada; pero comida cruda, causa dolores de cabeza, vaguidos y jaqueca. Hácense della muy buenos turrones, confitura y otros regalos. El modo como esta planta produce su fruto es asido á unas venillas delgadas ó barbas como la <i>Batata</i>, y para desenterrarlo, se arranca la mata, en la cual salen asidas muchas destas raicillas de <i>Maní</i>, aunque muchas más quedan soterradas, las cuales se sacan cavando toda la tierra al rededor.</p><p>Las zorras son muy golosas desta fruta, la cual se comen escarbando la tierra y desenterrándola. La leche del <i>Maní</i>, que se saca como la de las almendras, sirve para almendradas, y mezclada con la que se saca de las pepitas de melón ó calabaza, agrava blandamente el celebro y causa sueño en los faltos dél; y si á la almendrada, en lugar de azúcar se le echa miel de abejas, es contra la itericia y purgazón de riñones. Llámase <i>Maní</i> esta raíz en la lengua de la Isla Española; los mexicanos le llaman <i>Cacaguate</i>, y los indios peruanos <i>Ínchic</i>, en la lengua quíchua, y <i>Chocopa</i>, en la aymará. (Vol. I, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=UykCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA359&vq=mani">p. 359-360</a>)</p><p>The <i>maní</i> is a root different from all the other of the Indies, the plant is very short and very close to the ground. The fruit of this plant are small roots, each are the size of the small finger somewhat shorter, with a whitish skin very wrinkled and are thin and slender that when slightly pressed between the fingers it breaks; inside of it each root has 2 or 3 seeds very much resembling the pine nuts, covered by a red skin very slender, like that of the almond, which when removed leave the seed very white like the husked pinenut, it divides into two parts like the beans. This root is eaten as a fruit, it has very good taste cooked or toasted; but when eaten raw, it produces headaches, dizziness, and headache (megrim).</p><p>It makes good nougat (candies), confection, and other gifts (treats).</p><p>The way this plant produces fruit is by having thin ‘veins’ or slender roots (the pegs?) as in sweet potato (Batata) and to uproot it, the plant is pulled and comes out with many little rootlets (pegs?) of <i>maní</i> (peanuts). Quite a few are left in the soil but these are gathered by digging around in the soil.</p><p>Foxes are very fond of this fruit, and seen digging in the ground and getting the fruit. Peanut milk (leche del <i>maní</i>), which is obtained as in almonds, can be used much as milk of almond, which mixed with milk obtained from melon or gourd seed causes sleep when there is no sleep. As with milk of almond, if in place of sugar honey is added, it works against jaundice and for purging the kidneys. This root is called <i>Maní</i> (peanut) in the language of Hispaniola. Mexicans call it <i>Cacaguate</i>, and Peuvian Indians call it <i>Ínchic</i> in the Quichua language and <i>Chocopa</i> in the Aymara language. (tr. after Latham and del Valle in Hammons)</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Du_Tertre">Jean-Baptiste du Tertre</a>'s <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/11144908"><i>Histoire générale des Antilles</i></a> (1667-1671) also includes a more careful description:</p><blockquote><p>Nous avons encore une autre plante, dont les fruits croiſſent dans la terre, comme celle des Patates, mais qui en eſt bien differente: on l'appelle <i>Piſtache</i>, à cauſe de ſa forme & ſon gouſt, c'eſt une petite plante qui rampe ſur la terre, & pouſſe de ſes petites tiges qui ſont fort deſliées, rouſſes & veluës, de petites queuës fort drües, qui portent chacune quatre petites fuëilles aſſez ſemblables à celles du <i>Mélilot</i>; il ſort de la jointure de ces rameaux de petites fleures jaunes & rougiſsantes par le haut, comme celles de <i>Citiſus</i>: cette plante produit ſous la terre de petites gouſses griſes, qui ſont du bruit lors qu'on les caſſe: elles contiennent chacune deux ou trois fruits gros comme des Avelaines, l'eſcorce en eſt rouge, & le dedans en eſt blanc, oléagineux & de meſme gouſt que nos Piſtaches de l'Europe; on les preſente au deſsert, mais ils font mal à la tête de ceux qui en mangẽt trop; l'on en fait des cataplaſmes qui gueriſsent les morſures des ſerpens &, l'huile que l'on en tire eſt eſtimée comme l'huile d'amande douce. (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k114021k/f143.chemindefer">p. 121</a> and <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k114021k/f101.item">plate</a>)</p><p>We have another plant, whose fruits grow in the earth, like those of the [sweet] potato, but it is very different, called Pistache, because of its shape and taste. It is a little plant that runs along the ground and produces from its small red hairy stems, which are very slender, some short thickened ‘pegs’ (queuës), and four leaflets, similar to sweet clover, and from the juncture of these shoots it sends out bright little yellow-and-russet flowers like those of broom. This plant produces small grey underground pods, which pop when squeezed; each contains two or three large fruits like a filbert nut, the seed coat is red and the inside is white, oily and of the same taste as the European Pistachio. They are used for dessert, but will cause headaches if overindulged; they are also used for making poultices to heal snake-bite and the expressed oil is considered to be equal to sweet almond oil. (tr. after Cutler in Hammons)</p></blockquote><p>Since it has come up before <a href="http://www.languagehat.com/archives/002843.php">elsewhere</a>, it is also worth mentioning here that this work is one of the earliest to give an etymology of French <i><a href="http://www.cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/requin">requin</a></i> (<a href="http://francois.gannaz.free.fr/Littre/xmlittre.php?requete=r3188">Littré</a>) 'shark' from <i>requiem</i>:</p><blockquote><p>Ce Poiſſon eſt appellé par les Eſpagnols <i>Phiburon</i>, par les Holandois <i>Haye</i>, & par les François, <i>Requiem</i>, parce qu'il dévore les hommes, & fait chanter <i>Requiem</i> por eux. (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k114021k/f227.chemindefer">p. 202</a>)</p><p>This fish is called by the Spanish <i>[T]iburon</i>, by the Dutch <i>Haai</i>, and by the French <i>Requin</i>, because it devours men and so necessitates singing the Requiem for them.</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Labat">Jean Baptiste Labat</a>, a Dominican missionary, published <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/24189643"><i>Nouveau voyage aux isles de l'Amerique</i></a> in 1722, with a second edition in 1742. He has a quite detailed description of peanuts, which will be the last one quoted here. The older edition is in Gallica, but the <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k741041/f68.table">scan</a> is defective because of a fold-out plate and so missing the first page of the following description. There is a <a href="http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN245767002">scan</a> of the second edition in GDZ, but I cannot figure out how to deep-link to pages in it; the description starts on page 366 (391 : 366 in the drop-down list).</p><blockquote><p>Pendant que je ſuis ſur le chapitre des fruits ſauvages, il faut que je parle d'un qu'on n'a pas tant de peine à cüeillir que le précédent, puiſqui'il vient dans le terre, au lieu qu'il faut aller chercher l'autre dans le moyenne région de l'air. On l'appelle piſtache très - improprement: car il n'a rien qui approche des véritables piſtaches, ni pour le goût, ni pour le couleur, ni pour le coque qui le renferme, ni pour le maniere dont la nature le produit.</p><p>Il y a apparence que mon Confrere le Pere du Tertre n'avoit jamais vû de véritables piſtaches, & n'en avoit jamais mangé lorſqu'il a écrit, que celles des Iſles avoient le même goût que celle d'Europe. Cela lui eſt pardonnable, ce n'eſt pas une choſe qu'on trouve chez les Religieux où il étoit entré fort jeune, & il peut s'être trompé auſſi bien que ce jeune Marchand Hollandois dont parle M. Tavenier dan ſes Mémoires qui les prenoit pour des féves vertes.</p><p>Les véritable piſtaches ne croiſſent qu'en Aſie. L'arbre qui les porte a douze à quinze pieds de hauteur. Ses feüilles ſont preſque rondes, & aſſez ſemblables à celles du Thérebinte. Il porte des fleurs qui ne ſont que des bouquets de petites étamines commes des franges, après leſquel es les fruits paroiſſent auſſi par bouquets. Il ſont couverts de deux enveloppes. Le premiere eſt verte, mêlée de quelques pointes & lignes rouges, à peu près de la conſiſtence du deſſus des noix communes: celle-ci renferme une coque blanchâtre, dure & forte, quoi qu'aſſez mince, qui couvre une amande longuette, ronde, pointuë par les deux bouts, dont le deſſus eſt verd & rouge, & le dedans extrémement verd. Cette amande eſt fort agréable au goût, ſoit qu'on la mange cruë ou cuite. On prétend qu'elle eſt fort chaude.</p><p>Les fruit qu'on appelle piſtaches aux Iſles viennent d'une plante qui ne s'éleve guéres plus d'un pied hors de terre, elle rampe ordinairement, parceque ſa tige eſt trop foible pour le ſoutenir. Elle pouſſe quantité de jets déliez, rougeâtres & velus, accompagnez de petites queuës, qui portent des feüilles preſque comme celles du mélliot & des capucines qui ſont jaunes avec un peu de rouge aux bords & à l'entrémité. Elles durent peu, & leur délicateſſe eſt cauſe qu'elles ſont bien-tôt brûlées & conſomées par l'ardeur du Soleil. Le fruit ſe trouve en terre où il faut le chercher. Il eſt attaché à des filets & aux chevelures que la racine pouſſe, & que la tige répand ſur la terre, dans laquelle ils entrent, & produiſent des gouſſes ou coſſes de douze, quinze & juſqu'à dix-huit lignes de longeur, ſur quatre, cinq & ſix lignes de diamétte. Elles n'ont guéres plus d'épaiſſeur qu'un bon parchemin, ou comme celles des amandes tendres. Le dedans eſt revêtu d'une petite peau blanche, unie & luſtrée: le dehors eſt de couleur de biſtre avec des rayes plus blanches, élevées au-deſſus de fond, qui vont d'un bout de la coque à l'autre, & qui ſont unies enſemble par d'autres petites lignes moins élevées, qui partagent toute la ſuperficie en quantité de petites lozanges. Le fruit qui eſt renfermé dans ces coſſes a la figure d'une olive, quand il eſt ſeul, mais pour l'ordinaire il y en a deux ou trois chaque coſſe, dont ils rempliſſent exactement la capacité, ce qui leur fait prendre différentes figures. Ces fruits ou amandes ſont couvertes d'une pellicule rougeâtre, quand on les tire de terre, dont la couleur change & devient griſe lorſque le fruit eſt ſec. Cette peau eſt peu adhérente quand le fruit eſt nouveau, on n'a qu'à le preſſer entre les doigts pour l'en dépoüiller. Elle eſt plus adhérente lorſqu'il eſt ſec. La ſubſtance qu'elle couvre eſt blanche, compacte & peſante, & a peu l'odeur & le goût du gland. Quand le fruit eſt rôti dans ſa coſſe, cette pellicule s'en va en pouſſiere, & la ſubſtance blanche qu'elle renfermoit devient griſe, & acquiert le goût & l'odeur des amandes roties. Nos Eſculapes prétendent que ces amandes ſont bonnes pour l'eſtomach. Je n'en ſçai rien. J'ai ſeulement remarqué qu'étant mangées cruës, outre leur mauvais goût, elles ſont indigeſtes, & échauffent beaucoup. C'eſt peut-être en cela ſeul qu'elles reſſemblent un peu aux véritables piſtaches. Elles ſont moins mal faiſantes étant roties, elles ouvrent l'appétit, elles excitent à boire; on en fait des dragées, des maſſepains, on les met dans les hachis & dans les ragoûts en guise de marons: on s'en ſert encore pour donner au roſſolis une odeur & un goût d'amandes roties qui n'eſt pas déſagréable. Cependant il faut convenir qu'à quelque uſage qu'on les employe, elles ſont toujours indigeſtes & peſantes, & qu'elles echauffent beaucoup.</p><p>Le Pere du Tertre dit qu'elles font mal à la tête à ceux qui en mangent beaucoup, que l'on en fait des cataplaſmes qui guériſſent les morſures des ſerpens, & que l'huile que l'on en tire, eſt eſtimée comme l'huile d'amandes douces.</p><p>Je n'ai point experimenté ou entendu dire que ce fruit ait cauſé mal à la tête à perſonne. Je ſuis très-certain qu'on n'a jamais penſé à guérir les morſures des ſerpens avec un pareil reméde; & pendant le grand nombre d'années que j'ai demeuré aux Iſles, je n'ai jamais entendu dire, qu'on ſe ſoit aviſé de tirer de l'huile des piſtaches, quoique nous en ayons eu aſſez ſouvent en beſoin preſſant.</p><p>Quand cette plante a été une fois dans la terre, on peut compter qu'elle s'y conſervera long-tems. Car quelque ſoin qu'on ſe donne en foüillant les fruits, il n'eſt pas poſſible qu'on les enleve tous, ou du moins, qu'il ne reſte en terre quelques filets, ou quelque chevelure de racine, & cela ſuffit pour en perpétuer la race à l'infini.</p><p>Before I get to the chapter on wild fruits, it is necessary that I speak of one which does not work so hard to pick as the preceding, since it comes in the ground, instead it is necessary to go find the other in the middle of the air. One calls it ‘pistachio’ very inappropriately: because it does not in any way approach true pistachios, neither in taste, nor in color, nor in the shell which contains it, nor for the manner in which nature produces it.</p><p>It appears that my comrade Father du Tertre have never seen real pistachios, and never eaten then, since he writes, that those of the islands have the same taste as those of Europe. That is forgivable, since it is not a thing which one finds among religious men where he entered when he was very young, and he was perhaps also fooled by the young Dutch merchant of whom M. Tavenier spoke in his Memoirs who took them for green beans.</p><p>True pistachios only grow in Asia. The tree which bears them is a dozen to fifteen feet in height. Their leaves are almost round, and close enough to those of terebinth. It has flowers which are only bundles of small stems like fringe, after which the fruit also appear as bundles. They are covered by two envelopes. The first is green, mixed with some red points and lines, a little like the consistency of the bottom of common nuts: it encloses a white shell, hard and strong, relatively thin, which covers a long almond, round, pointed at both ends, whose bottom is green and red and the top very green. This almond is very agreeable in taste, so that one can eat it raw or cooked. One supposes that it is very hot.</p><p>The fruit which one calls ‘pistachios’ in the islands came from a plant that is hardly a foot high and which is ordinarily a running (creeper), because its stem is too feeble to support it. It puts out a lot of slender stems, that are red and velvety, accompanied by little ‘pegs’ (queuës=tails), which carry leaves almost like sweet clover and nasturtium-colored flowers, which are yellow with red at the edges and at the extremities. The flowers are delicate and their short life is due to the fact that they are grilled and shriveled up by the heat of the sun. The fruit is formed in the earth where it must be looked for. It is attached by filaments to hairs that the roots put out (sic) which come from stems distributed on the surface of the earth, where they enter and produce pods or hulls 12, 15, and 18 ‘lignes’ long which are 4, 5, or 6 ‘lignes’ in diameter. [ligne = 0.0888 inch.] The pods are not much thicker than a good parchment, or tender almond. The interior is covered with a fine white skin that is smooth and lustrous; the outside is bister (brown) colored with white streaks, and ridges go from one end of the shell to the other and these are totally connected by a network of lines which divide the surface into a number of small areas. The fruit (seed) which is contained in these pods has the shape of an olive when it is single, but ordinarily there are two, or three, in a pod where they take up the entire space so tightly that they take on different shapes. The fruits, or kernels, are covered with a reddish seed coat when they comes out of the earth, but the color changes to gray when the fruit is dry. The skin adheres lightly to the fruit, when it is fresh and one has only to squeeze it between the fingers to remove it. When dry it is difficult to remove. The meat that it covers is white, compact and dense and it has the odor and taste that resembles an acorn. When the fruit is roasted in its pod the seedcoat (pellicle) becomes powdery and the white meat which it surrounds turns a greyish color and acquires the taste and aroma of roasted almonds. Our ‘Esculapes’ believe that the fruit is good for the stomach. I don't know anything about that. I have only noticed that eating them raw exaggerates their bad taste and that they are indigestible and that they cause great heating (échauffent beaucoup). It is perhaps in that way alone that they resemble real pistachios. They produce less undesirable effects when roasted, since they stimulate the appetite and thirst: people use them to make sugar peanuts, marzipan, and they are put into hash and stews as a substitute for chestnuts: it is used still to give to rossolis an odor and taste of roasted almonds which is not disagreeable. While it is necessary to point out the various uses of the peanut, they are always indigestible and heavy, and they heat up greatly (échauffent beaucoup).</p><p>Father du Tertre says that they are bad for the head for those who eat too many, that one makes poultices which heal snakebites and that the oil which one presses is esteemed as much as sweet almond oil.</p><p>I have not experimented at all, nor have I heard tell that this fruit caused anyone headaches. I am very sure that no one has ever thought to cure snakebite with such a remedy, and, during the many years that I spent in the islands, I have not heard of anyone recommending expressing the oil from these ‘Pistaches’ even though we might often enough have an urgent need for it.</p><p>When this plant has been planted in the earth a single time, one can be sure that it will remain there for a long time. Because whatever care is taken rummaging for the fruit, it is not possible that they are all removed, or at least, a few filaments or some root hairs, and that is to perpetuate the race to infinity. (tr. after Cutler)</p></blockquote><p>In 1737, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a> coined the generic name <i>Arachis</i> by shortening <i>Arachidna</i> and published it in <i>Critica Botanica</i> (pp. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=TBMAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA42&vq=arachis+arachidna">42</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=TBMAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA114&vq=arachis+arachidna">114</a>; translation <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=7c05AAAAMAAJ&q=arachis&ei=DAOmR86QEKHeyAShl_j7Dw&pgis=1">snippets</a>). <i>Arachis hypogaea</i> was included in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_Plantarum">Species Plantarum</a></i> in 1753 (Vol II, <a href="http://www.botanicus.org/page/358762">p. 741</a>) and <i>Genera Plantarum</i> in 1764 (<a href="http://www.botanicus.org/page/649595">p. 377</a>). <i>Arachidna</i> (<span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἀράχιδνα</span>) is <i><a href="http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb?version~10.01&LegumeWeb&tno~5245&genus~Lathyrus&species~amphicarpos">Lathyrus amphicarpos</a></i> or some other species of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lathyrus">Lathyrus</a></i>, a wild vetch. It is described by Pliny (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=YtMAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3259&dq=arachidna">Book XXI, 15, 52, Sect. 89</a>; the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=IUoMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA349&vq=Arachidna">scan</a> of Bostock and Riley's translation in Google Books seems to be missing the relevant page 349; but it's in the <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof04plinrich">Internet Archive</a> and <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+21.52">Perseus</a>: of additional interest is that <i>œtum</i>, perhaps just another Egyptian variety of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colocasia_esculenta">colocasia</a></i>, in the immediately preceding sentence, is footnoted by them “The Arachis hypogæa of Linnæus, the earth pistachio.” — 1855 is quite late for someone to think it could have been known to Pliny) and Theophrastus (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=EREdkLyXq8MC&pg=PA2&dq=arachidna">1.1.7</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OuAW71tsKL0C&pg=PA11&vq=arakhidna">translation</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=EREdkLyXq8MC&pg=PA10&dq=arachidna">1.6.12</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OuAW71tsKL0C&pg=PA51&vq=arakhidna">translation</a>) — these passages were referred to in the <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/07/potato.html">potato</a> post, since they concern fruit which grows underground. <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἄρακος</span> and <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἄραχος</span>, which is <i>Vicia sibthorpii</i> or some other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicia">vetch</a>, are also referred to by Galen (<i>De alimentorum facultatibus</i>, Kühn 6.541: strangely only a few other <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=EFsGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7">volumes</a> of Kühn are in Google Books, but <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=YXJ8pQ-1L0oC&pg=RA1-PA14">here</a> is another edition; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=0n5tbgfFLosC&pg=PA103&vq=arachos&sig=x71naxZmVuoAsEqHqMSomhspMsA">translation</a>). Since many different theories seem to be given in books and on the Web for the generic name <i>Arachis</i>, it is worth summarizing:</p><ul><li><i>arachis</i> is a back-formation from <i>arachidna</i>.</li><li>It does not mean <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἀ-ῥάχις</span> 'no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachis">rachis</a>'.</li><li>It is only indirectly related to <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἄραχος</span>, <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἄρακος</span> and <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἀρακίς</span>, in as much as these are the same root as <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἀράχιδνα</span> and also influenced Parkinson, who classified them together.</li><li>It is not related to <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἀράχνη</span> 'spider's web'.</li></ul><p><a href="/2008/02/peanut-continued.html">Read More</a></p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-74926193205850242482007-12-17T00:17:00.002-05:002008-06-17T18:59:15.724-05:00Potato Poems<p>There is one batch of leftovers remaining to be served before the new year. (I take John Cleese's Linkman in <a href="http://www.ibras.dk/montypython/episode18.htm">Episode 18</a> as a cautionary tale against letting that metaphor get out of hand. So that'll be all.)</p><p>The <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/07/potato.html">potato</a> post contained a couple of poems. In putting that together and subsequently, I have collected them in a low-key way. And come to the conclusion that there is pretty much an inexhaustible supply. I don't know how one would measure, really, but potato looks like it might well be the most popular vegetable for poetry.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2007/12/potato-poems.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>To keep the length of this post manageable and avoid copyright problems, I will not quote everything in its entirety. When it is readily available online, I will try to make it clear in the hyperlink that there is more there.</p><p>Without too much effort, I acquired two book-length potato poetry anthologies, <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/4567860/details/19707854">An Anthology of the Potato</a></i> and <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/4258338/details/19920118">Spud Songs</a></i>.</p><p><i>An Anthology of the Potato</i> was published in 1961 for the Irish Potato Marketing Company, Ltd., Dublin in an edition of 500. It contains several centuries of Irish potato poems. All the poems are in English, or translated from Irish into English. The title page has this little ditty (apparently without attribution):</p><blockquote>We praise all the flowers that we fancy<br> Sip the nectar of fruit ere they're peeled,<br>Ignoring the common old tater<br> When, in fact, he's King of the Field.<br>Let us show the old boy we esteem him,<br> Sort of dig him up out of the mud;<br>Let us show him he shares our affections<br> And crown him with glory—Kind Spud</blockquote><p>The opposite end has a list of proverbs, like “Mushrooms and potatoes—they go together.” Which probably means something profound, though I'm not clear what.</p><p>The Introduction to the <i>Anthology</i> notes the first “reference in metre to potato” in “An Account of an Irish Quarter” from <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/12078307">Songs and Poems of Love and Drollery</a></i> (1654):</p><blockquote>And now for ſupper, the round board being ſpred;<br>The Van a diſh of coddled Onions led,<br>I'th' Body led a ſalted tail of Sammon<br>And in the Rear ſome rank Potatoes came in. (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:53649:44">more</a>)</blockquote><p>Earlier occurrences outside an Irish context (and so outside the <i>Anthology</i>) run into a problem outlined in the earlier post: the likelihood that the word refers to the sweet potato. Either because of how they are prepared, as in <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/48620132">A Terrible Battell</a></i> (1606?):</p><blockquote>Let them not want (I praie) <i>Potato</i> pies, (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:12412:21">more)</a></blockquote><p>Or their supposed aphrodisiac properties, as in <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/55184336">The Most Elegant and Witty Epigrams</a></i> (1618):</p><blockquote><p><b>33 <i>Against an old Lecher</i>.</b></p><p>Since thy third carriage of the French infection,<br><i>Priapus</i> hath in thee found no erection:<br>Yet eat'ſt thou Ringoes, and Potato Rootes,<br>And Caueare, but it little bootes. (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:4032:64">more</a>)</p></blockquote><p>One of the earlier longer poems in the <i>Anthology</i> is “A Lament for the Potatoes in the Year of the Big Frost 1739,” by Seaghan O Connaire (pp. 43-45), which begins:</p><blockquote>My great sorrow is that the nobles of the Gael<br>Are now in great distress,<br>Because all their means of livelihood<br>Have been destroyed by frost.</blockquote><p>In the winter of 1739-40, the temperature never rose above freezing and was frequently in the single digits Fahrenheit. In London, the Thames froze solid and carriages moved and fairs were held on it. This poem is a translation from the Irish, but I cannot find the source given (RIA MS 23 T 12) in the online <a href="http://bill.celt.dias.ie/">Bibliography of Irish Linguistics and Literature</a>. But there is one there on the same topic, “<a href="http://bill.celt.dias.ie/vol4/displayObject.php?TreeID=1968&TypeID=4">Poem on the Great Frost of 1740</a>”, by Séamas Mac Coitir. It can be found in <i>Éigse</i> 27 (1993; pp. 120-121). And since there's a world-class Irish Studies department down the hill from me, here it is:</p><blockquote><p>Ní cogadh ná cargaill fhada idir airdríthibh<br>Ná stoirm na mara fé chaismearthaibh bárc biobha<br>Ná cloistin na n-arm chum leadartha dá líomhadh<br>Fá ngoilid fir Bhanba, a gclanna 's a mná timpeall,</p><p>Acht cogadh na ngarraithe a leagadh 's a lánscaoileadh<br>Cogadh na gcarad do dhealaigh na potátaí linn,<br>An cogadh so an tseaca do fearadh ón Airdrí orainn,<br>Seo an cogadh leo is measa 's is fairsinge ghnáthchaoinid.</p><p>Cogadh bheir ainnise is airc agus ár daoine,<br>Osna agus atuirse is mairg ar mhnáibh tí anois,<br>Bheir orchra im scartaibhse trasna gach tráth smaoinim<br>Gurb é moladh na marbh mo theastas a photátaí oraibh.</p></blockquote><p>As listed, the poem occurs (with slight variation) in four manuscripts, but none of them have yet been scanned for (the very fun) <a href="http://www.isos.dias.ie/">Irish Script on Screen</a>. So I haven't used an uncial font. Also, unfortunately, it has the opposite problem as the previous poem. I cannot find an English translation. And I am not up to it myself:</p><p>Naturally enough, many of the poems are about potato famines and blights, some with a more satirical tone. For instance, “The Potato Commission” by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Forbes">Professor Edward Forbes</a> (pp. 71-72), which begins:</p><blockquote>Have you heard the report—the last Edition—<br>Sent out by the Great potato commission,<br>Who crossed the water to find some new<br>Materials for an Irish stew? (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OqwiAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA4">more</a>)</blockquote><p>The subject is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Peel">Peel</a>'s 1846 scientific commission to investigate the potato blight. Of additional interest here is a couplet later in the poem:</p><blockquote>(Sure never since the days of Plato<br> Was there such a row about a rotten potato!)</blockquote><p>For all its appeal as a subject for poetry, there aren't many words in English that rhyme with <i>potato</i>. One that does, and is particularly popular in this kind of verse, is <i>Plato</i>. John Emerson, of <a href="http://idiocentrism.com/potato.htm">Idiocentrism</a> and frequent commenter at <a href="http://www.languagehat.com/archives/002470.php">LanguageHat</a>, traced <i>Plato/potato</i> back through <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=08_wvhcGQ3sC&pg=PA143&dq=Plato+potato"&ei=IeFtR9iTLYeQjgGMwcx3&sig=Q3BP6J1Hf_q6-8gFE07D5vhnE0o">Ransom</a> and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Flv6DfdHNnMC&pg=PA103&dq=Plato+potato">Gilbert</a> to Byron's <i>Don Juan</i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=fo_qOa4Jp-IC&pg=PA256&vq=potato+plato+cato">Canto VII, IV.</a>) The same essay appears in the book of Idiocentrism essays, <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/3540157/book/22654972">Substantific Marrow</a></i>, for reading away from a computer (pp. 173-174). He does not quote the entire Byron verse, and since this is <i>ottava rima</i> (<b>abababcc</b>), there must actually be a second <i>potato</i> rhyme:</p><blockquote>By Swift, by Machiavel, by Rochefoucault,<br> By Fénélon, by Luther, and by Plato; <br>By Tillotson, and Wesley, and Rousseau,<br> Who knew this life was not worth a potato. <br>'T is not their fault, nor mine, if this be so —<br> For my part, I pretend not to be Cato, <br>Nor even Diogenes. — We live and die,<br>But which is best, you know no more than I.</blockquote><p>The interesting thing is, <i>potato/Cato</i> is much older. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobias_Smollett">Tobias Smollett</a>'s <i>The Reprisal</i> (1757):</p><blockquote>The brav'st chief, ev'n Hannibal and Cato,<br>Have here been tamed with—pinnin and potato. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=1fUkAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA504">more</a>)</blockquote><p>And the <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/15728689">Irish Hudibras</a></i> (1689):</p><blockquote>Who can forget the Learned * <i>Cato</i><br>That writ ſo much on a pottado (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:105328:76">p. 142</a>; also quoted <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=-NMiAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA50&dq=Cato+pottado">here</a> in the Potato chapter of a book of Irish songs)</blockquote><p>The margin note</p><blockquote><i>This is </i>Cormack<i> Mac Art, ſtyled, the </i>Cato of Ireland<i>. He writ a Treatiſe of the Vertues of a </i>Pottado<i>, beyond the Wiſdom of </i>Solomon<i>, the Knowledge of </i>Ariſtotle<i>, the Rhetorick of </i>Cicero<i>. </i>Con. Clerenaugh<i>, and </i>Mureartagh O Collegan<i>.</i></blockquote><p>does not disqualify it, since the whole work is a parodic “transversion” of <i>Aeneid</i> VI to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingal">Fingal</a>: there is no “Cato of Ireland.” Its other potato rhymes are <i>Granadoes</i> (i.e., grenades; <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:105328:6">p. 3</a>) and <i>Meadows</i> (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:105328:48">p. 86</a>), which like <i>potato/tomato</i> only works in some dialects. The <i>Irish Hudibras</i> is also notable for being one of the earlier records of any length of “stage-Irish,” like in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Makepeace_Thackeray">Thackerary</a>'s “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=6UwAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA146">Mr. Molony's Account of the Crystal Palace</a>” (contrasted with Tennyson's somewhat more careful dialect attempt in “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=N4g1AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA555">Tomorrow</a>” from about the same time) and well through to Vaudeville.</p><p>It did not take long for <i>Plato/potato</i> to take hold. From <i>Belfegor</i> (1837 — a verse adaptation <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfagor_arcidiavolo">Belfagor arcidiavolo</a></i>):</p><blockquote>I deemed it not worth a potato,<br>Although the progeny of Plato. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Z1EEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA128&vq=Plato+potato">more</a>)</blockquote><p>Or an interior rhyme from Robert MacNish's “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vVkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259&vq=Plato+potato">Bacchanalian Song</a>” (1833), “Who cares a potato for Solon or Plato.” Note that this song also has the <i>Aristotle/bottle</i> rhyme.</p><p>From Walter Landor's “Shakespeare in Italy” (1863):</p><blockquote>I'd rather sup on cold potato,<br>Than on salmon cookt by Plato, (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Fj8CAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA236&vq=plato+potato">more</a>)</blockquote><p>So that by the turn of the century, the doggerel role is firmly established and things begin to get completely out of hand. “The Future of the Classics”:</p><blockquote>No true son of Erin will leave his potato<br>To list to the love-lore of Ovid or Plato. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=O18gAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA143&vq=plato+potato">more</a>)</blockquote><p>Back in the more serious vein, another “A Lament for the Potato : A. D. 1739 : From the Irish” by “Speranza”:</p><blockquote>There is woe, there is clamour, in our desolated land,<br>And wailing lamentation for a famine-stricken band; (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=te4kAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA83">more</a>)</blockquote><p>I have not seen any full reference to the Irish original. This translation first appeared in 1854, in the <i>Dublin University Magazine</i>, in an <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_lSWcbO5nMcC&pg=PA143">essay</a> on “The Food of the Irish,” by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wilde">Sir William Wilde</a>. “Speranza” is the pen-name of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Wilde">Lady Wilde</a>. Nowadays, this couple is perhaps best remembered as Oscar Wilde's parents. I don't know that Oscar quipped about potatoes in particular, but he did use them as a means of poking fun at the English diet, in an unsigned <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RqnxvCU8YzQC&pg=PA23&ei=YfBtR7SuEorqiwH-s6z6Dw&sig=4K8w5e7VhNc4lDZSSKpN0wga3-8#PPA21,M1">review</a> of <i>Dinners and Dishes</i> by “Wanderer,” in the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>:</p><blockquote>There are twenty ways of cooking a potato, and three hundred and sixty-five ways of cooking an egg, yet the British cook up to the present moment knows only three methods of sending up either one or the other.</blockquote><p>More famine-inspired poetry can be found in <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/21449699">The Hungry Voice : The Poetry of the Irish Famine</a></i>.</p><p>A poem titled “To the Potato,” which was sometimes associated with Robert Burns, begins:</p><blockquote>Guid e'en, my auld acquaintance cronie!<br>I'm glad to see thee bloom sae bonie; (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eksJAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA176">more</a>)</blockquote><p>The discussion in <i>Notes and Queries</i> (<a href="http://www.archive.org/details/s4notesqueries02londuoft">s4-ii</a> 339-340, 477, 614-615; <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/ser4notesqueries04londuoft">s4-iv</a> 371-372) seems to conclude that it was actually by an Alexander Clerk, from a book <i>Poems on Various Subjects</i> from 1801.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wilkie">William Wilkie</a>, “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=12glAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA132">The Scottish Homer</a>,” was known as “Potato Wilkie,” but alas not because of the subject of his poetry, but because he grew them.</p><p><i>Spud Songs : An Anthology of Potato Poems : To Benefit Hunger Relief</i> was published in 1999 for that stated purpose. Most of the contents are included by permission of the living authors. Many major poets are represented, such as Seamus Heaney's “<a href="http://www.wussu.com/poems/shdigg.htm">Digging</a>” or Richard Wilbur's “<a href="http://www.soupsong.com/fpotato2.html">Potato</a>.”</p><p>The anthology has not one, but two, instances of the <a href="http://snowclones.org/2007/05/31/if-eskimos-have-n-words-for-snow-x-have-y-words-for-z/">original snowclone</a>, specifically about the number of words for 'potato' in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quechua">Quechua</a>. <a href="http://www.boaeditions.org/authors/gonzalez.html">Ray Gonzalez</a> contributes “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=YHNsn7prm4gC&pg=PA31&ei=R6ZuR_LOKbXgiwHg5vUU&ie=ISO-8859-1&sig=qPa2FqHLZ7-aNrwLJXykjyy4z6s">In Peru, the Quechuans Have a Thousand Words for Potato</a>” and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Goldbarth">Albert Goldbarth</a> “<a href="http://www.poetry365.com/2006/16.html">Mishipasinghan, Lumchipamudana, etc.</a>” I wish I knew where Goldbarth got those words in the title. Of course, at some level this is a not particularly remarkable truth. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weston_La_Barre">W. LaBarre</a>'s seminal “<a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/oclc/79017658">Potato Taxonomy Among the Aymara Indians of Bolivia</a>” listed a couple hundred identifications and more modern <a href="http://www.actahort.org/books/745/745_4.htm">studies</a> of related folk taxonomies have apparently done likewise. And something similar would be expected of an Idaho potato farmer. So, then it is just a matter of what the slippery term <i>word</i> refers to.</p><p>Poem is defined rather broadly for some of the works. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nam_June_Paik">Nam June Paik</a> contributed a photo of his <a href="http://www.joslyn.org/Collection/Search-Detail.aspx?ID=f95b5127-2bc4-4f98-bd5c-6bae34954ec7">Couch Potato</a>, now permanently in the Joslyn Art Museum — with its fax machine answering at (402) 342-0091. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Piene">Otto Piene</a> refines the famous story of the rebus <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeu_de_paume">Jeu de paume</a> between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_II_of_Prussia">Frederick II</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire">Voltaire</a> by having the proposed meal consist of potatoes, which Frederick introduced to Prussia. Unfortunately, I do not think there is a picture online and I hesitate to scan something with so recent a copyright. Piene's is a little different from the usual <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZpUCdrMdKN4C&pg=PA8&sig=QIMYT3T8M2PWXU0n2tE63buLw6E">form</a>, having <b>venez p / a à 6 / 100!</b> (<i>a sous p à cent sous six</i>) “à souper à Sanssouci!” and <b>J a</b> (<i>J grand a petit</i>) “J'ai grand appetit.” And rough sketches of potatoes for themselves. Plus flags, as it would need to be decided which country's produce to have. (Does anyone know where this rebus story originates? <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebus#Examples_from_history">Wikipedia</a> is, not atypically, devoid of reference.)</p><p>All the poems proper are in English. But <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolfo_Anaya">Rudolfo Anaya</a> does contribute one titled, “La Papa,” which plays on the difference between <i>papa</i> and <i>papá</i>. It is not online or listed as having been published elsewhere. It begins:</p><blockquote><p>In Spanish potato is papa.<br>As in papas fritas.<br>Papas in a chile con carne stew.</p><p>Papa is not Papá, which is father,<br>As in he who brings home the papas.</p></blockquote><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Neruda">Pablo Neruda</a> wrote a poem entitled “Oda a la papa,” this time playing on the difference between American Spanish <i>papa</i> and Iberian <i>patata</i>:</p><blockquote><span style="font-variant:small-caps">Papa</span>,<br>te llamas<br>papa<br>y no patata, (<a href="http://www.redepapa.org/neruda.html">more</a> — but note that that transcription is imperfect on the next two lines: “no nasieste con barba, / no eres castellana:”; dozens of other copies on the net are incomplete and Google Books is <a href="http://books.google.com/books?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Google+Search&as_epq=no+naciste+con+barba&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_libcat=0&as_brr=0&lr=&as_vt=nuevas+odas+elementales&as_auth=&as_pub=&as_sub=&as_drrb=c&as_miny=&as_maxy=&as_isbn=">No preview available</a>; the only one I have found that is accurate is deep inside this Spanish <a href="http://www.mec.es/redele/revista/martinez.shtml">lesson</a>)</blockquote><p>Translating this into English, <a href="http://www.poetics.ca/poetics06/06Norris.html#bio">Ken Norris</a> has to use the pretend dialectal variation that really only exists for <i>tomato</i>:</p><blockquote>Potato,<br>you are called<br>potayto,<br>not potahto; (<a href="http://www.chbooks.com/archives/online_books/odes/2.html">more</a>)</blockquote><p>As noted above, it is not at all surprising that Quechua has a rich potato folk taxonomy. And as it is for the Irish, the potato is an important cultural symbol. Now apparently there is a long tradition among linguistic anthropologists of studies of folk taxonomies of hot peppers, aided in no small part by the inclusion of a term with obvious appeal to college students, <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=y9sZAAAAMAAJ&q=lada-balaynum-maharat-qutin-kutiq&dq=lada-balaynum-maharat-qutin-kutiq&ei=2DZ0R4bjAYXYiwHnnczCAQ&pgis=1">lāda.balaynum.mahārat.qūtin.kutiq</a></i> 'cat-penis houseyard chili pepper', in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanunoo_language">Hanunóo</a> plant taxonomy by <a href="http://www.yale.edu/seas/Conklin.htm">Harold Conklin</a> in these <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/1811076">proceedings</a> (work for which he had <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7294(199706)2:99:2<257:CJATW>2.0.CO;2-O">sought</a> a grant from the James Joyce Society). Thus <a href="http://www.utexas.edu/cola/insts/llilas/faculty/profiles/Sherzer/Joel/">Joel Sherzer</a> did a careful taxonomy for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuna_language">Kuna</a> in his <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/713482">book</a> and how it is projected in <i>kapur ikar</i> 'the way of the hot pepper', a curing chant for high fever. Which got <a href="http://anthropology.uchicago.edu/faculty/faculty_friedrich.shtml">Paul Friedrich</a> thinking about the “poetry of peppers” in his <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/629826">book</a> on the application of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapir–Whorf_hypothesis">Sapir-Whorf</a> to poetry. Which in turn motivated <a href="http://www.languages.umd.edu/SpanishPortuguese/spanfac/RHarrison/">Regina Harrison</a> to include a “The Poetry of Potatoes” section in the “Potato as Cultural Metaphor” chapter of <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/373885">Signs, Songs, and Memory in the Andes : Translating Quechua Language and Culture</a></i>. Which gets us back from chili peppers to potatoes. She translates a potato song, of which this is the first verse:</p><blockquote><p>Q'uñi uquchapi<br>papacha tarpusqay<br>wiñashanmanraqchu<br>icha manaraqchu<br>rurushanmanraqchu<br>icha manaraqchu.</p><p>In the deep [earth] of Quni,<br>the potatoes [I] planted,<br>are they growing yet?<br>Are they [I wonder]?<br>Are the [tiny] potatoes forming?<br>Are they [I wonder]? (p. 190; substantially the same song <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=gs3zgKC_un4C&pg=PA203&dq=papacha+tarpusqay&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=xkJ0R4eZI47-igH_6LV1&sig=CADncbBzOkCIP4dMrMPLKG-rfDk">here</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The earlier potato post included a Japanese potato fart poem, but it was in Classical Chinese, which may be cheating. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_D._Gill">Robin D. Gill</a> specializes in producing English translations of Japanese poetry, and in particular of those with subject matter outside the usual popular themes, through his <a href="http://paraverse.org/">Paraverse Press</a>. His <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/book/23118899">The Woman Without a Hole & Other Risky Themes from Old Japanese Poems</a></i> has a fart chapter (complete <a href="http://paraverse.org/senryudescription.htm">Table of Contents</a>) with a yam fart senryū and a related folk-song that the poet, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobayashi_Issa">Issa</a>, copied into his journal (pp. 373-374):</p><blockquote><p>屁くらべや芋名月の草の庵  一茶<br><i>he-kurabe ya imo-meigetsu no kusa no an issa</i></p><p>comparing farts, for smell, for tune, <br>a grass hut below the yam full moon</p><p>かはい男は芋喰て死んだ 屁をひる度に思ひ出す<br><i>kawai otoko wa imo kutte shinda // he o hiru tabi ni omoidasu</i><br>(cute man-as-for yam-eating died // fart[obj] cuts time remember) </p><p>lover boy choked<br>on sweet potato tarts<br>she still recalls him<br>whenever she farts</p></blockquote><p>Lest it seem that Japanese potato poems are always about flatulence, here is a famous haiku by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsuo_Bashō">Bashō</a> about looking for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saigyō">Saigyō</a>'s old hut and finding a woman rinsing vegetables in a stream instead:</p><blockquote><p>芋洗ふ女 西行ならば 歌よまむ<br><i>imo arau onna / saigyō naraba / uta yoman</i></p><p>A woman washing potatoes;<br>if Saigyō were here,<br>he would be write waka. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZRUQAAAAYAAJ&q="A+woman+washing+potatoes"&dq="A+woman+washing+potatoes"&ei=KipvR9PSDovsiQG485WhCA&ie=ISO-8859-1&pgis=1">Blyth</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Since some amount of ambiguity is usual in the form, this one actually has three non-crazy interpretations:</p><ol><li>If Saigyo were here, he'd write a waka.</li><li>If Saigyō were the one here (i.e., if I, Bashō, were / could be Saigyō), I'd write a waka.</li><li>If Saigyō were here, she (the woman) would write a waka.</li></ol><p>More generally, potato is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kigo">季語</a> <i>kigo</i> 'season word', required in a standard haiku:</p><ul><li><b>Spring</b>: 馬鈴薯 / 芋 植える <i>bareisho / imo ueru</i> 'planting potato(es)'; 種芋 <i>tane imo</i> 'seed potato(es)'.</li><li><b>Summer</b>: じゃが芋の花 <i>jyagaimo no hana</i> 'potato flower'.</li><li><b>Fall</b>: 馬鈴薯 / 芋 <i>bareisho / imo</i> 'potato; yam'.</li><li><b>Winter</b>: 焼き芋 <i>yakiimo</i> 'baked potato'.</li></ul><p>One of the earliest works of a young <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz">Adam Mickiewicz</a>, the Polish (or Lithuanian or Belarusian) poet, was “Kartofla” 'Potato'. The region was still suffering from the aftermath of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> and the increased yield of potatoes over grain averted much starvation in 1816-1818. Intending it as an epic in the neo-classical style of Voltaire, he wrote two cantos in 1819, of which only the first survives, and an additional fragment in 1821, presumably intended as the beginning of the third. Evidently only that fragment is <a href="http://wiersze.annet.pl/w,,289">online</a>. The conceit of the poem is that the Olympic gods have been driven from Europe to America by Christianity and out of concern for their new Indian charges halt Columbus in mid-ocean. (cf. <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os_Lusiadas">Os Lusiadas</a></i>) They are driven away by the Catholic saints, but the matter remains whether the discovery of America is a net-gain and should be allowed or not. The arguments include predictions by Saint Raphael of the New World and its freedoms. But the scales are tipped by Saint Dominic, who holds up the potato. Likewise, he averts mutiny by the men by throwing down a potato, thereby indicating that land is near. Part of his oratory description is:</p><blockquote><p>Ten zboża w ziemię rzuca, sad innego trudzi,<br>Wtem mróz podetnie drzewa, nasiona wystudzi;<br>A kartofla, w głąb warstę przekopawszy skrzepłą,<br>Na łonie wielkiej matki potrzebne ma ciepło<br>I owoc z tysiącznego dająca porostu,<br>Wygłodzonych oraczów zachowa od postu. (ll. 391-397 <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/5884289">Dzieła Poetyckie : 1 - Wiersze</a></i> p. 429; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?ei=8250R-uJD5jSigGyjOCIAg&id=rxodAAAAIAAJ&dq=Ten+zboża+kartofla+zachowa&q=Ten+zboża+kartofla&pgis=1#search">snippet</a>)</p><p>This one sows corn, orchard is another one's toil,<br>When sudden frost undercuts trees and chills seeds in the soil.<br>But the potato, down deep in the ground lies still,<br>In great mother's bosom all needed warmth feels<br>And fruit of thousands giving its growth, thus<br>Will all hungered ploughmen preserve from fast. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WYT1S7qhn4sC&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=potato&source=web&ots=ATAL2hE5m5&sig=EEDiONrR-OrjkpXY-D9-37Vr9Bg#PPA2,M1">Lisinska and Leszczyński</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Fans of Mad Magazine will probably recognize <i>potrzebne</i> 'needed' as closely related to <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potrzebie">potrzebie</a></i> 'as needed' < <i>potrzeba</i> 'need (n.)'</p><p><a href="http://members.aol.com/thesmith1/menke.html">Menke Katz</a> wrote poetry in <a href="http://menkekatz.blogspot.com/">Yiddish</a> and <a href="http://www.dovidkatz.net/menke/menke_19poems.htm">English</a>. If he wrote a potato poem in Yiddish, I haven't come across it. But he was a vegetarian from childhood and a baked potato was his standard fare when dining out. Here is his “Hymn to the Potato”:</p><blockquote><p>O my first hymn was to the potato,<br>lure of my childhood, fruit of the humble,<br>the diurnal festival of the poor.</p><p>No fruit is noble as the potato.<br>Cherries are coy, plums have hearts of true stone.<br>The wind is a drunk fiddler at the grape.</p><p>The potato knows how much light there is<br>in the fertile darkness of seeded earth,<br>kissing the dust to which Adam returned.</p><p>On the hungry alleys of my childhood,<br>The Milky Way was a potato land. (<a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/4016930">Rockrose</a>, p. 62; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nv8eAAAAMAAJ&q="The+potato+knows+how+much+light+there+is"&pgis=1#search">snippet</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Here is Katz' NYT <a href="http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE6D8173AF935A15757C0A967958260">obituary</a>. He really should have a Wikipedia page, but then Melech Ravitch (also a vegetarian) doesn't even appear in the list of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Yiddish_language_poets#R">Yiddish poets</a> and only has a Hebrew <a href="http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/מלך_ראוויטש">page</a>: a bit of a mess, as always.</p><p>James Joyce, the master of puns, could not fail to notice the resemblance between <i>poem</i> and French <i>pomme (de terre)</i> 'potato', particularly if the former is spelled as in his <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomes_Penyeach">Pomes Penyeach</a></i>. And indeed, <i>Finnegans Wake</i> has:</p><blockquote>pome by pome, falls back into this terrine (<a href="http://www.trentu.ca/faculty/jjoyce/fw-80.htm">80.22</a>)</blockquote><p>A potato meta-poem.</p><p><b>Update</b>: MeFi reminds us that 2008 is the <a href="http://www.potato2008.org/">United Nations International Year of the Potato</a>; since it looks like it was indeed the last post of the year, consider the above a segue.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-42023896722151091962007-11-23T18:05:00.000-05:002007-12-16T12:11:36.120-05:00Shredded Wheat<p>My breakfast has been the same most every day for several decades: shredded wheat with soy milk.</p><p>Shredded wheat, along with corn flakes and grape-nuts, is one of the staple American cold breakfast foods invented at the end of the 19th century by vegetarian food faddists. They have made contributions, sometimes major ones, to the development of consumer marketing, intellectual property law, and vocabulary.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2007/11/shredded-wheat.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>In addition to specific sources cited below, the following books cover the threads that intersect here in more depth:</p><ul><li><i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/1407791">Cerealizing America: The Unsweetened Story of American Breakfast Cereal</a></i> presents that history from the point of view of popular culture and consumerism.</li><li><i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/179888">Vegetarian America : A History</a></i> is full of additional interesting characters with nothing to do with breakfast, like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emarel_Freshel">Emarel Sharpe Freshel</a>, who lived not too far from here (where her home stood, there is now a BC dorm), where she regularly had high-society vegetarian get-togethers. She also organized an annual vegetarian Thanksgiving at the then new <a href="http://www.fairmont.com/copleyplaza/">Copley Plaza</a>. She knew Tolstoy and Shaw (who may have given her the nickname Emarel from her initials M. R. L.), and met <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anagarika_Dharmapala">Dharmapala</a> when she attended the 1893 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World's_Parliament_of_Religions">World's Parliament of Religions</a> as a Christian Scientist. (The dedication of the somewhat biased <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/4455461">The Incredible World's Parliament of Religions</a></i> has her converting to Buddhism as a result of this, and it may well have been an eventual influence, but other sources indicate that she did not leave that church until 1917 over its stance on entry into WWI.) She designed her next-door neighbor's house and may have done the original sketches for the design of the <a href="http://www.sothebys.com/app/live/lot/LotDetail.jsp?lot_id=159425056">highly prized</a> Tiffany Wisteria lamp, as part of her instructions to Tiffany for decorating her home. This has been called into question by the discovery earlier this year of the letters of Clara Driscoll, where Driscoll takes credit for it. I am hardly an expert, but these two claims do not seem to actually be in conflict, if we assume that the sketches only gave a rough description of wisteria in leaded glass. Emarel's grand-niece has a <a href="http://webcroft.blogspot.com/2006/11/great-aunt-mrl.html">blog</a>, where bits of family history seem to show up occasionally.</li><li><i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/130172">Listening to America : An Illustrated History of Words and Phrases from our Lively and Splendid Past</a></i> has a few pages (131-133) on breakfast food names, among similarly sized essays on many other topics.</li></ul><p>It all starts with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvester_Graham">Sylvester Graham</a>, inventor of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_flour">Graham flour</a>, whole wheat flour made by adding back the bran and germ, but more coarsely ground than the base white flour, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_cracker">Graham cracker</a>. Graham advocated abstinence from pretty much everything, including meat, alcohol, tobacco, caffeine (okay so far), sex and chocolate.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Caleb_Jackson">James Caleb Jackson</a> was a Grahamite who promoted hydrotherapy and a vegetarian diet as cure-alls. In 1863, he developed the first industrial dry cereal, made from granules of Graham flour, which he called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granula">Granula</a>. He ran an institution in Dansville, NY, called Our Home on the Hillside and so formed a company to sell his cereal known as the Our Home Granula Company. They also made a grain-based coffee substitute known as Somo.</p><p>Jackson's water cure and cereal found favor among Seventh-day Adventists, who have a strong vegetarian tradition. (There used to be a vegetarian restaurant in downtown Boston run by Adventists. It was a victim of the Big Dig, barely surviving during the endless construction and then unable to afford the jacked up rents once that was over.)</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Harvey_Kellogg">John Harvey Kellogg</a> was an Adventist doctor who ran their Sanitarium in Battle Creek, MI. Here he carried out experiments to develop an improved cereal, which he also called Granula. When Jackson objected, he changed the name in 1881 to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granola">Granola</a>. Some sources say that there was only the threat of legal action, others that Jackson actually won a judgment against Kellogg (though none give a case reference). We will see even more of this kind of discrepancy presently. Here are a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vJcZzehXTd8C&pg=PT14">couple</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=_QhZPcvcMz8C&pg=PT148">ads</a> for the Battle Creek Sanitarium's Granola.</p><p>Modern granola appears in the mid-1960s. The earliest reference to modern granola in the OED is from this 1970 Time magazine <a href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,904481,00.html">article</a>, though uses from a year or more before that aren't hard to find in ads in digitized newspaper archives. Any connection with the earlier kind is not entirely evident, but nor is it ruled out. Though there are several other claimants, a major promoter of granola was Layton Gentry, profiled in Time as <a href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910236,00.html">Johnny Granola-Seed</a>. In 1964, Gentry sold the rights to a granola recipe using oats, which he claimed to have invented himself, to Sovex Natural Foods, a company making a concentrated paste of brewers yeast and soy sauce by that name, founded in 1953 in Holly, MI by the Hurlinger family, and bought in 1964 by John Goodbrad and moved to Collegedale, TN. In 1967, Gentry sold the West Coast rights to Wayne Schlotthauer of Lassen Foods in Chico, CA. The Hurlingers, Goodbrads, and Schlotthauers were all Adventists and it is possible that Gentry had some Adventist association. Furthermore, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Klein">Joe Klein</a>'s article “A Social History of Granola” in the Feb. 23, 1978 issue of <i>Rolling Stone</i>, Schlotthauer claimed that his grandmother was making something called “granola” when she came over from Germany in 1912 and that he was making small batches of the wheat-based version in 1957 at his father-in-law's health food bakery (which would become Lassen Foods). In 1972, Pet Milk (later <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/pet-incorporated?cat=biz-fin">Pet Incorporated</a>) introduced granola under the Heartland Natural Cereal brand; it was the brainchild of Jim Matson, who is the main subject of Klein's article. At almost the same time, Quaker introduced Quaker 100% Natural Cereal, followed shortly by Kellogg's Country Morning and General Mills Nature Valley. In 1974, <a href="http://www.mckeefoods.com/">McKee Baking</a>, makers of Little Debbie snack cakes, purchased Sovex. In 1998, they also acquired the <a href="http://www.heartlandbrands.com/AboutHeartland/History.htm">Heartland</a> brand and moved its manufacturing to Collegedale. (That Heartland page claims that Matson introduced Heartland Natural Cereal in 1968, but that appears to be before he was even working for Pet.) In 2004, Sovex's name was changed to <a href="http://www.blueplanetfoods.net/history.htm">Blue Planet Foods</a>. This JSTOR <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-1283(198522)60:2<150:TCSO->2.0.CO;2-L">article</a> (and a couple that it references that are also in JSTOR and to which it'll nicely hyperlink) relates <i>granola</i> to other <i>-ola</i> neologisms, including generalizations of <i>payola</i> for all kinds of financial scandals and foods like Mazola. Though it does not mention it, <i>canola</i> also fits the pattern. As near as I can <a href="http://www.languagehat.com/archives/002920.php">determine</a>, that name came from a 1978 committee for establishing a trademark to regulate its quality. Imagine if it they had gone with CanAbra oil or kept LEAR (for low erucic acid rapeseed) oil.</p><p>Meanwhile, back in 1892, a Denver lawyer and entrepreneur named <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Perky">Henry Perky</a> had teamed up with a Watertown, NY machinist named William H. Ford to invent a machine (U.S. Patent <a href="http://www.google.com/patents?id=GJBEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing">502,378</a>) to make <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shredded_wheat">shredded wheat</a>. Perky set up his Cereal Machine Company in Denver, where he soon realized that selling the product would be superior to selling the machines for home use. So he moved to Boston (on Ruggles St. in Roxbury, I think, though I'm not sure where) and then <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=NyPVeB__SwQC&printsec=frontcover#PPA518,M1">Worcester</a> and then to Niagara Falls to take advantage of the cheap <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2mkEAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover#PPA129,M1">hydroelectric power</a>.</p><p>The standard version of the story is that Perky suffered from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyspepsia">dyspepsia</a> and sought an easier to digest substitute for bread. At a hotel in Nebraska he saw a man eating boiled wheat and then started looking for a way to make this more palatable while still healthy. This is the version in the Wikipedia and in this Dec. 1928 <a href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,929119,00.html">article</a> from <i>Time</i> magazine. But a few weeks later, in Jan. 1929, they printed a <a href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,732150,00.html">letter</a> from his son, Scott H. Perky, attempting to correct the record. The younger Perky claims that his father was not a “dyspeptic lawyer” and that a French doctor who had attended his mother was responsible for recommending boiled wheat. Of course <i>Time</i> <a href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,744205,00.html">stuck</a> with “dyspeptic lawyer,” because it's just too good to let go. He also corrects the claim that biscuits were sold from baskets in Lincoln and Denver, though it is evidently true that samples were given out from covered wagons door-to-door, since one of those wagons is pictured in <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/46667">Out of the Cracker Barrel; The Nabisco Story, from Animal Crackers to Zuzus</a></i> (p. 221). Scott Perky, who was an inventor in his own right (see below), also wrote a biography of Henry Perky, but it was apparently never published. The maintainer of the <a href="http://hometown.aol.com/_ht_a/jwalton971/">I Love Shredded Wheat</a> site has an active request for any information on it. She lists a brand new <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/4499932">biography</a>, whose author had access to the manuscript.</p><p>Things get even muddier when Perky meets up with the Kelloggs, J. H. and his brother <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Keith_Kellogg">Will Keith Kellogg</a>, who had joined him to run the Sanitarium. W. K.'s authorized biography is <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/4469391">The Original has This Signature—W. K. Kellogg</a></i>. <a href="http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE4DA163BF936A35751C1A96F948260">Gerald Carson</a><i>'s <a href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/lhbum:@field(DOCID+@lit(lhbum09631)):@@@$REF$">Cornflake Crusade</a></i> provides more alternatives. (I believe a pair of Carson's articles titled, “Early Days in the Breakfast Food Industry” that ran in <i>Advertising and Selling</i> for Sept. & Oct. 1945 were a major source for this time period in <i>Cerealizing America</i>.) I can only summarize without resolving the contradictions.</p><p>The process of making shredded wheat is fairly straightforward. Wheat kernels are cooked (boiled / steamed), allowed to sit for a while, and then pressed through a pair of small rollers to create strings of the cooked grain, which are then placed side-by-side to form sheets, which are folded into biscuits, which are then baked.</p><ul><li>Perky and Ford may have already been designing a machine to press whole, uncooked grain before hitting on the idea of boiling it.</li><li>A lady from Denver may have shown shredded wheat to J. H. while at the San.</li><li>Shredded wheat may have given Kellogg the idea to make flaked food.</li><li>The boiling idea may have been borrowed in one direction or the other.</li><li>It may have been a surprise that the shreds came out more or less continuously and had to be cut.</li><li>The idea of cooking after the shreds were formed may have come from Kellogg's flakes.</li><li>W. K. may have offered Perky $100,000 for shredded wheat but stopped there when he held out for more.</li></ul><p>In any case, by 1896, the Kelloggs were producing whole grain flakes known as Granose. Once corn was used exclusively as the grain, these became <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn_flakes">corn flakes</a>.</p><p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._W._Post">C. W. Post</a> visited the Battle Creek Sanitarium for his health. He worked with J. H. on some cereal products and failed to gain interest in his proposed improvements or tried to help selling and was rebuffed or just saw more opportunity on his own. Whichever way, in 1895 he began producing a grain drink similar to Somo called Postum and in 1897 a cereal similar to Granula / Granola, known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape-Nuts">Grape-Nuts</a>, so called because <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape_sugar">grape sugar</a> was formed by the breakdown of the malted barley used in making it. (And not quite as the Wikipedia suggests because grape sugar was a direct ingredient.) In 1904 he introduced a flake cereal, similar to Granose, called Elijah's Manna, which was renamed to Post Toasties in 1908.</p><p>By the turn of the 20th century there were a variety of ready-to-eat cereal brands, most of which do not survive today. And there began to be reputable scientific interest in evaluating their nutritional value. Two lists from then specifically aimed to the economical aspects of the nutrients are <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=AS0iAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA134">here</a> and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Q9VIAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA90">here</a>. Likewise, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HrxAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA77#PPA76,M1">here</a> are the result of microscopic analysis to determine whether processed grains really were superior in their digestibility.</p><p>Some particularly extravagant claims were made by Post for Grape-Nuts. These led <i>Collier's</i> magazine to refuse to accept their advertising, which in turn led Post to undertake a campaign against Collier. Collier then sued for libel and in 1910 a jury <a href="http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E00E5DD1638E333A25757C0A9649D946196D6CF">awarded</a> him $50,000. Collier published articles giving his side of the story and republished them in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=1dXMk4YXUNUC">book</a> form, documenting in particular the evidence given at the trial as to whether or not Grape-Nuts prevented, or was safe for those with, appendicitis. The case was overturned on appeal and remanded to the lower court for a new trial, which never took place. IANAL and I don't feel like paying Loislaw to read the decision, but I believe the issue was the finer points of an individual suing for damage resulting from action taken against a corporation.</p><p>A much more significant precedent setting case was <i>Kellogg v. National Biscuit</i>, <a href="http://laws.findlaw.com/us/305/111.html">decided</a> by the Supreme Court on 14 Nov 1938. <a href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,771244,00.html">Here</a> is <i>Time</i>'s report then and a brief <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0017-811X(193901)52:3<536:UCTATN>2.0.CO;2-T">report</a> from Harvard Law Review. The Court decided that <i>shredded wheat</i> was a descriptive name that Shredded Wheat and then Nabisco had not given sufficient secondary meaning to associate with them exclusively as a trademark, and further that the pillow shape of the biscuit was inherent in the public's idea of shredded wheat and so could not be used exclusively without perpetuating a monopoly, outweighing a lower court opinion of 1918 in <i>Shredded Wheat v. Humphrey Cornell</i>, which had sought to avoid confusion to consumers when shredded wheat was served without any packaging. All of this was after the original shredded wheat patent had been declared invalid in 1908 because the design had been in use for more than two years prior to application (it would have expired in 1909 anyway) and others had expired in 1912, so only trademark law was limiting competition. Additional analysis from closer to the time of the opinion can be found in many law school journals in JSTOR: <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0042-6601(193902)25:4<454:PIRTUT>2.0.CO;2-Q">1</a> <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-2234(193906)37:8<1288:TMATND>2.0.CO;2-O">2</a> <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0041-9907(196205)110:7<935:PIATPI>2.0.CO;2-5">3</a> <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0010-1958(196403)64:3<544:UCATDO>2.0.CO;2-E">4</a>, and a recent summary of the lasting influence is <a href="http://works.bepress.com/graeme_dinwoodie/28/">here</a>.</p><p>Yet another case with consequences was <i>Shredded Wheat v. City of Elgin</i>, where the company sought a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaratory_judgment">declaratory judgment</a> against a law that forbade distributing direct advertisements in the city. The court declined, rather uncreatively reasoning that if the law were constitutional, they would offer no help, and if it were not they did not need to. That is, they said the only way to challenge a law was to break it. This was cited in calls for uniform principles for such judgments.</p><p>Shredded Wheat were pioneers of modern marketing.</p><ul><li>A <a href="http://books.google.com/books?as_brr=1&q="all+in+the+shreds"+"shredded+wheat"&num=25">selection</a> of their magazine ads can be found in Google Books, though it seems to miss a couple of the more outrageous (and borderline offensive) ones I have in my small collection: <ul><li>Shredded Wheat vs. Beef (<a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/35596940@N00/2096340641/in/set-72157603407887558/">scan</a>), showing that the former is pound for pound 2½ times more nutritious than sirloin steak.</li><li>The Plucky Little Jap (<a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/35596940@N00/2097118506/in/set-72157603407887558/">scan</a>), from 1906, right after the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War">Russo-Japanese War</a>, linking their military prowess to a cereal diet.</li></ul></li><li>In keeping with their linking of diet and health, for a time their boxes said, “Tell me what you eat and I'll tell you what you are,” translating <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brillat-Savarin">Brillat-Savarin</a>'s <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=SGDzJdTpO60C&printsec=titlepage#PPA9,M1">aphorism</a> «Dis-moi ce que tu manges, je te dirai ce que tu es.», which is also the slogan of <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/01/iron-chef.html">Iron Chef</a>.</li><li>They published cookbooks with dietary advice where all the recipes (many of which are savory and not just for breakfast) called for their product: <ul><li><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/4159195"><i>The Vital Question Cook Book</i></a> (online <a href="http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/eaa/cookbooks/CK0080/CK0080-17-72dpi.html">here</a>).</li><li>The even stranger <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/4196581">The Vital Question and Our Navy, 1898</a></i> (I have scanned it <a href="http://home.comcast.net/~mmcm/scans/Vital%20Question%20and%20Our%20Navy.pdf">here</a>), which is half the same cookbook and half photo inventory of American naval vessels from right after the sinking of the Maine, when Hearst was pushing for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish-American_War">Spanish-American War</a>. The proposition is that war is caused by poor diet and nutrition: just look at all these floating machines of destruction that are therefore necessary.</li><li><i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/4474010">The Happy Way to Health</a></i>, which starts with a discussion of health and diet, then the specific benefits of shredded wheat, then “Unsolicited Letters of Gratitude and Appreciation”, and finishes up with a few recipes with color illustrations. </ul></li><li>The company made their factory in Niagara Falls into a tourist attraction in its own right with guided tours, <a href="http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/eaa/ephemera/A03/A0328/A0328-72dpi.html">picture postcards</a>, etc.</li></ul><p>The long time Director of Publicity for the Natural Food Company and then for Nabisco was Truman A. DeWeese, whose 1906 <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/10342321">The Principles of Practical Publicity</a></i> (2nd <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/2529894">edition</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PCcKAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#PPA30,M1">online</a>) covered the principles of modern advertising. He was one of the first to use the word <i>copy</i> in the sense of text for an ad there, just one year after the earliest citation in the OED, 1905's <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/28779822">The Art of Modern Advertising</a></i> by Earnest Elmo Calkins and Ralph Holden, who founded the first modern advertising agency on Jan. 1, 1902 with $2,000. Oddly enough, this <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2429(194707)12:1<80:PITDOA>2.0.CO;2-">article</a>, which actually cites both books, gives priority to DeWeese.</p><p>According to Scott's biography (via Holechek), Perky became a vegetarian about the same time as he was setting up in Denver. By some accounts, the Cereal Restaurant, whose purpose was to promote shredded wheat and where all the dishes contained it, was vegetarian; other sources say that shredded meat in shredded wheat “cups” as one of the offerings. Perky did promote his product in the <i>Chicago Vegetarian</i>. But the recipes in the cookbooks are not limited: they include meat on shredded wheat. Still, his <a href="http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9A0CE2D9113AE733A25753C3A9609C946797D6CF">obituary</a> does mention his vegetarian principles in the headline.</p><p>Shredded Wheat is a biscuit not only because of its shape, but also because it is in fact <i>biscoctum</i> 'twice cooked' (so also Italian <i>biscotto</i>). If one binds up the shreds somewhat tighter and cooks the result a third time, one gets the shredded wheat cracker, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triscuit">Triscuit</a>. The analogy is Bread <b>:</b> Shredded Wheat <b>: :</b> Toast <b>:</b> Triscuit. And once Shredded Wheat was mainly for breakfast and not all meals, Triscuit was for lunch, as in this <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=8F8BAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PR19&dq="shredded+wheat"+triscuit">ad</a>.</p><p>Scott H. Perky's take on shredded wheat wound them into a tight spiral (U.S. Patent <a href="http://www.google.com/patents?id=Y_tAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing">1,517,453</a>). These were known as Muffets. They started out with the height about equal the diameter, but then got flatter. The rights were eventually sold to Quaker, who still sells them in <a href="http://www.canadianfavourites.com/Quaker_Muffets_Box_of_18_p/quaker005.htm">Canada</a>. This round shape is similar to <a href="http://www.worldpantry.com/cgi-bin/ncommerce3/ProductDisplay?prmenbr=587770&prrfnbr=892318&pcgrfnbr=881896">Barbara</a>'s Shredded Wheat, which is the brand I usually have (making a collection of vintage rectangular shredded wheat bowls even sillier), although constant supply chain problems mean I sometimes settle for other brands. Barbara's shreds are somewhat thicker and the biscuit somewhat denser, though Post's larger biscuits end up weighing a little more.</p><p>I believe some shredded wheat-like products were made with a regular flour dough rather than boiled wheat, meaning that they were really just vermicelli.</p><p>A traditional food product that is even closer to shredded wheat is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadaif">kadaif</a>, sometimes known as “shredded phyllo.” It is made by pouring a thin batter of flour and water onto a large hot spinning round metal plate. I suppose that means that to a topologist a skein of kadaif is a stack of pancakes. Here are some <a href="http://www.kammaz.com/kam/OTHR.HTM">pictures</a> of products from a baking machine company, one of which (the pour device) is for making it. Even better, here is a video of some being made:</p><object width="400" height="333"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/fi1DCHEsTfQ&rel=1&color1=0xd6d6d6&color2=0xf0f0f0&border=0"></param><param name="wmode" value="transparent"></param><embed src="http://www.youtube.com/v/fi1DCHEsTfQ&rel=1&color1=0xd6d6d6&color2=0xf0f0f0&border=0" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" wmode="transparent" width="400" height="333"></embed></object><p>In Turkish, strictly speaking, <i>kadayıf</i> can be several kinds of pastry and <i>telkadayıf</i> 'wire kadaif' is the shredded wheat one. Likewise Persian رشته قطائف <i>rišta qaṭāʾif</i> 'wire velvet'. Arabic قطائف <i>qaṭāʾif</i> / قطايف <i>qaṭāyif</i> are different kinds of sweet dessert pancakes; the name is the plural of قطيفه <i>qaṭīfah</i> 'velvet', from the root قطف <i>qṭf</i> 'to pick (flowers or fruit)': here is the <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000245.pdf">page</a> in Lane's Lexicon and the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=lkUJAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA549,M1">footnote</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=lkUJAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA389,M1">chain</a> in his <i>1001 Nights</i> to which he refers. The usual word for the shredded wheat pastry is كنافة <i>kunāfah</i>, root كنف <i>knf</i> 'to surround': here again is Lane's <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000258.pdf">page</a> and for completeness his <i>1001 Nights</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=lkUJAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA389,M1">footnote</a>. In Turkish <i>künefe</i> is a dish made by layering the pastry with cheese.</p><p>As I mentioned before, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktoboureko">galaktoboureko</a> (γαλακτομπούρεκο) is one of my wife's favorite desserts. We recently found a <a href="http://www.shamra.com/food/foodsearch_details.asp?ItemID=2188">mix</a> for it, though we haven't tried it yet. Since phyllo would not keep well in a box, it uses kataifi (καταΐφι) pastry. We haven't tried it yet, but since there is no baking, I imagine it will be more like crème anglaise on shredded wheat than the real thing. But I still couldn't resist getting it. This is the export packaging, with no Greek on it at all; the only two languages are English and Arabic: غالاكتوبوريكو does not get any search hits (yet). The same Balkan grocers that have it seem to have packages of kadaif from Bosnia.</p><p>Since no real text has been quoted yet in this post, a little searching finds a Turkish <i>yemek destanı</i> 'food epic' by a Şerife Hanım from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konya">Konya</a> from 1896 with the following stanza:</p><blockquote>kadı(y)fın telini kırmalı gü(n)lü<br>üzeri kokulu anberli gü(l)lü<br>pılavın üstüne getir sütlüyü<br>yiyelim bizler de can cemal olsun.</blockquote><p>That is the text given <a href="http://sozluk.sourtimes.org/show.asp?t=yemek+destani">here</a> and <a href="http://nedir.net/yemek+destani.html">here</a>; a slightly different version is given <a href="http://www.turkudostlari.net/soz.asp?turku=9262">here</a>:</p><blockquote>Kadayıfın teni kırmalı telli<br>Üzeri kokulu emberli güllü<br>Pilavın üstüne getir sütlüyü<br>Yiyelim bizlerde can cemal olsun</blockquote><p>I assume the issue is modernizing the language. It should also be found on page 473 of this <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/22438766">anthology</a>, which I do not have access to. Snippets of it or a similar poem appear <a href="http://books.google.com/books?ei=cz9aR7GNMY6CiQGV5MTHAw&id=5Y4zAAAAMAAJ&dq=Kaday+f+teni+k+rmal++telli&q=Kadayıf+teni+kırmalı+telli&pgis=1#search">here</a> and in an even more potentially interesting collection <a href="http://books.google.com/books?ei=lN5aR76rG43sigG5n53oDQ&id=sQ0tAAAAMAAJ&dq="can+cemal+olsun"&q=yiyelim&pgis=1#search">here</a>, but again those books aren't available nearby. A not very literal rhyming translation is given <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0385-2342(1992)51:1<1:AT"D(P>2.0.CO;2-0">here</a>:</p><blockquote>If you make kadayif, shred well the pastry,<br>Make sure that it's fluffy, do not break the strands.<br>Bake in an oven, then sprinkle with syrup.<br>Kadayif is known now in most other lands.</blockquote><p>I do not feel qualified to give a more faithful translation; I only get the gist of it. I also imagine that the poem was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet and I would not mind seeing it that way, but I cannot bring myself to go as far as transliterating it back.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-41763633686982783222007-11-11T19:56:00.000-05:002008-12-14T07:28:52.559-05:00Garlic Origins<p>There were a couple of longer items left over from the <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/03/garlic.html">garlic</a> post. I am periodically reminded of this; most recently by a new frozen fusion item from the Super-88 Market, โรตีเมดิติวเรเซียน ตรา ฮิปโป <i>roh-dtee may-dì-dtiw-ray-sian dtraa híp-bpoh</i> 'Hippo Brand Mediteurasian Roti', รสเนยกระเทียม <i>rót noie grà-tiam</i> 'garlic-butter flavor'. A Mediterranean inspired Thai version of the Malaysian <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roti_canai">version</a> of an Indian bread. It does manage the taste of garlic bread, but with a different texture, and is an excellent foundation for a salad wrap.</p><p>In any case, one concerns the origin of garlic and the other an origin from garlic and both go beyond just etymology. They each take a little bit to set up.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2007/11/garlic-origins.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>In his <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/3077295">A History of Persia</a></i>, Percy Sykes <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=O9-yci_p-n4C&pg=PA239&vq="alexander+the+great"&sig=TkUyuEwjDtvx5ILaaaUdcUb63Mc#PPA239,M1">writes</a>,</p><blockquote>There is little exaggeration in the statement that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</a> as the most famous man ever born.</blockquote><p>His real life accomplishments were remarkable, conquering most of the known world in his brief career. After his real life, as Hamlet says (<a href="http://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/Library/facsimile/book/Bran_F1/786/">Act V Scene 1</a>),</p><blockquote><i>Alexander</i> died : <i>Alexander</i> was buried : <i>Alexander</i> returneth into duſt; the duſt is earth; of earth we make Lome; and why of that Lome (whereto he was conuerted) might they not ſtopp a Beere-barrell?</blockquote><p>But then his literary presence takes over. As <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrian">Arrian</a> says in the prologue to his <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabasis_Alexandri">Anabasis</a></i>,</p><blockquote><p style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ἄλλοι μὲν δὴ ἄλλα ὑπὲρ Ἀλεξάνδρου ἀνέγραψαν, οὐδ' ἔστιν ὑπὲρ ὅτου πλείονες ἤ ἀξυμφωνότερποι ἐς ἀλλήλους· (ed. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ZjH7-aoeCrwC&printsec=titlepage#PPA26,M1">Abicht</a>)</p><p>Different authors have given different accounts of Alexander's life; and there is no one about whom more have written, or more at variance with each other. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zR4FAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA7,M1">Chinnock</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Alexander appears prosaically in <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/bible/1ma001.htm">1 Maccabees 1</a>, just to establish the time period. More interesting are the ten questions posed by Alexandrus Mokdon (אלכסנדרוס מוקדון 'Alexander of Macedon') to the Ziknei ha'Negev (זקני הנגב 'Elders of the South') in the Babylonian Talmud (Tamid 31-32). For instance, the third question:</p><blockquote><p>אמר להן: אור נברא תחלה או חשך<br>אמרו לו: מילתא דא - אין לה פתר (<a href="http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/l/l5904.htm">here</a>)</p><p style="font-family:Code2000">'amar lə-hen 'owr nibəra' təḥillah 'ow ḥošek<br>'amaru lu milṯa' da' 'ayin paṯar</p><p>He then asked, “Was light created first or was darkness?”<br>They replied, “This is an unanswerable question.” (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=qUhk0UUgrAkC&pg=PA118&vq=alexander+light+darkness+question">Harris</a>)</p></blockquote><p>(Naturally some debate follows on whether this is the right answer. I have not been able to find a scan of the traditional typography of this section. But some web pages try to approximate it a little more in <a href="http://www.geocities.com/kodashim4/tamid/talmud_tamid31-32.htm">Hebrew</a> and <a href="http://dafyomi.shemayisrael.co.il/tamid/points/ml-ps-032.htm">English</a>.)</p><p>Compare this with Plutarch's <i>Life</i>, Chapter LXIV, where Alexander quizzes the Indian Gymnosophists.</p><blockquote><p style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ὁ δὲ πέμπτος ἐρωτηθεὶς πότερον οἴεται τὴν ἡηέραν ἤ τὴν νύκτα προτέραν γεγεονέναι, “Τὴν ἡμέραν,” εῖπεν, “ἡμέρᾳ ηιᾷ·” καὶ προσεπεῖπεν οὗτος, θαυμάσαντος τοῦ βασιλέως, ὅτι τῶν ἀπόρων ἐρωτήσεων ἀνάγκη καὶ τὰς ἀποκρίσεις ἀπόρους εῖναι.</p><p>The fifth, being asked which, in his opinion, was older, day or night, replied: “Day, by one day”; and he added, upon the king expressing amazement, that hard questions must have hard answers. (tr. <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/plutarchslives07plut">Perrin</a>, p. 406-407)</p></blockquote><p>Alexander appears in the Quran, if we accept that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhul-Qarnayn">Dulcarnain</a> (ذو القرنين <i>dhū al-qarnayn</i> 'Two-horned one') in <a href="http://www.muslimaccess.com/quraan/arabic/018.asp#83">Sura XVIII</a> (الكهف al-kahf 'The Cave') refers to him. Three prophetic passages in Daniel are also taken to refer to Alexander: <a href="http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/c.pl?book=Dan&chapter=7&verse=6&version=KJV#6">7:6</a>, the leopard with four wings and four heads; <a href="http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/c.pl?book=Dan&chapter=8&verse=21&version=KJV#3">8:3</a> ff., the he-goat who attacks the ram with two horns (!), explained as the king of Greece (:21) and of Media and Persia (:20), respectively; and <a href="http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/c.pl?book=Dan&chapter=11&verse=1&version=KJV#1">11:1</a> ff., again the Greek king who defeats Darius the Mede. (For the Christian exegesis, see <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Fv4c9kz9L_cC&pg=RA3-PA528&vq=alexandri+fortitudinis+Domini+voluntatis">Jerome</a>. Or <a href="http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/texts/viewtext.php?id=THEM00203&mode=normalized">Isaac Newton</a>, who isn't so much remembered for that sort of thing these days.) All of which shows not just his historical character, but also that these texts arose in the Hellenistic world.</p><p>The more fanciful tales of Alexander are known as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Romance">Alexander Romance</a>, descendant from a work whose author is known as Pseudo-Callisthenes (since the real Callisthenes predeceased Alexander). These spread throughout the Middle Ages and versions are known in many languages, including <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Ew9YprDEOrgC">Latin</a>, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Z40cAAAAMAAJ">Armenian</a>, and Serbian (from which Georgian and some of the Russian translations were made). In France, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_of_Châtillon">Walter of Châtillon</a> wrote a very popular Latin <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=f82I7MiRWogC"><i>Alexandreis</i></a>, which was translated into <a href="http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/06927218700692762979079/index.htm">Spanish</a> and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=S2SwvRqwpJoC">Icelandic</a>. A <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=kbELAAAAIAAJ">French</a> version gave rise to a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Fn4CAAAAYAAJ">Scots</a> one. Plus, of course, Old and Middle English versions (see <a href="http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/Alexander/alexhomepage.htm">here</a>).</p><p><b>A</b> is for Alexander in the abcedarian poem <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=INMAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA57&dq="alexander+puer+magnus"">“Alexander puer magnus”</a> in a 9th or 10th century manuscript in Verona. The 12th century Old French poem <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=CZMEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA1,M1">Li Romans d'Alexandre</a></i> gave rise to the term <i><a href="http://www.cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/alexandrin&category=commonNoun">alexandrine</a></i> for its twelve-syllable meter.</p><p>As Chaucer's Monk <a href="http://www.cts.dmu.ac.uk/AnaServer?CaxtonsOL+81212+textimge.anv">says</a>:</p><blockquote><p>The ſtorie of Aliſaundre is ſo comune<br>That every wight that hath diſcrecioun<br>Hath herd ſomwhat or al of his fortune</p></blockquote><p>Nor does this stop in modern times. There was an Oliver Stone <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0346491/">movie</a>. The magic formula,</p><blockquote><p style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">ποῦ εῖναι ὁ Μεγαλέξανδρος;<br>ὁ Μεγαλέξανδρος ζεῖ καὶ βασιλεύε</p><p>Where is Alexander the Great?<br>Alexander the Great lives and rules</p></blockquote><p>used by sailors to protect against rough seas, with a folktale about Alexander's sister who turned into a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=on2ShbwVzp4C&pg=PA427&lpg=PA427&dq="where+is+alexander+the+great"&source=web&ots=kYiTwY2lVq&sig=6T64ipStE3VPf3xx8zT-KvChGB0">mermaid</a>, shows up on Greek-American web sites. But this takes a nasty turn when mixed with extreme nationalism. For instance, a <a href="http://agrino.org/chicago/Greek_Banks.htm">directory</a> of Greek bankers in Chicago is really all about the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_naming_dispute">Macedonian question</a>: whether the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Macedonia">Republic of Macedonia</a>, the part of the former Yugoslavia with its capital at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skopje">Skopje</a>, should be allowed to use that name. (All sides claim the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vergina_Sun">Vergina Sun</a> as their heritage, making its image a good indication of trouble.) During the Cold War, there was additional anti-Communist coloring to the ethnic tensions. It starts by taking extreme positions on historical matters that have gray areas or definitional ambiguities, like “Was Ancient Macedonia part of Greece?”, “Did the Macedonians speak Greek?”, or “When have there been significant non-Greek speaking populations in Greece?”, and goes downhill from there. No good can come of discussing it here. More (only somewhat out of date) is on one of Tim Spalding's pre-LibraryThing <a href="http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/alexander/19.html">sites</a>. Right now the Wikipedia is pretty balanced, but that can change at any instant.</p><p>Naturally, each of the Medieval Alexanders is more or less adapted to the culture into which it is imported. The <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=rSpAdHLT3rMC">Ethiopic</a> version has Alexander as a Christian saint and his father as a martyr. Likewise the Coptic; in fact, although the Coptic Alexander Romance is as close to secular literature as Coptic gets (other than some monastic first-aid manuals), the <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/22808960">Coptic Encyclopedia</a></i> does not mince words:</p><blockquote>The style of these Coptic versions of the <i>Alexander Romance</i> duplicates the literature of edification written by the monks. The narratives extend the stories of the martyrs and also of the apocalypses. Those who treat some Coptic literature as being “profane” err; Coptic literature is Christian. As a tool of God, Alexander could be considered a prophet; as a martyr, he foreshadowed Christ. (s.v. Romances)</blockquote><p>Starting with Alexander, from Ptolemy to Cleopatra, Egypt was ruled by Macedonians. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champollion">Champollion</a> famously recognized their names written in hieroglyphs, based on their shared sounds in Greek; Alexander is <img style="border-style:none;" alt="A-l:k-s-i-n:d-rA:z" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6LRSJVju3tI5Za5SoZgTP_lZQ56x2I79XT-Ppbx2QKMdNCHUlfv8XfVkGkuaUvOUWWv2KwKMZGP69ChgRO8ES6O6UdpR9MKy9ndaJcEg1q1PoZj2z9EM2Q5CR88E_k7tt39Wa__2jxcM/s200/alksindraz.png" align="bottom"> <i>a-l-k-s-i-n-d-r-s</i>. The surviving version of Pseudo-Callisthenes evidently comes from Egypt. To legitimize this rule, it makes Alexander the half-Egyptian son of Nectanebo. This is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nectanebo_II">Nectanebo II</a>, the last native pharaoh, <i style="font-family:Code2000">nḫt ḥr ḥbt</i> 'strong is Horus of Hebyt' — modern <a href="http://www.egyptsites.co.uk/lower/delta/central/behbeit.html">Behbeit el-Hagar</a> بهبيت الحجارة. The cartouche in the Wikipedia is the fuller <img style="border-style:none;" alt="B1-U7:D40-G5-W4-X1:O49" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGTvaTRsTW5fiJpTw6N7c_V3MKLBko6kJaENuacUbyNeHmPwr2qkD2LQ6_wJnE5iDSCpDyUcrCrjOzVUVyjcPYdpuw3IEPmfiT9zKDamnUxO6cnQOy2EKRoWaF6r_4MXT5WVbujazHdgw/s200/nxt-hr-hbyt-mry-hthr.png" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5133335210285978754" align="bottom"> <i style="font-family:Code2000">nḫt ḥr ḥbt mri ḥtḥr</i>, adding 'beloved of Hathor'; other gods are presumably possible. The <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nectanébo_II">French</a>, <a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nektanebos_II.">German</a>, <a href="http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senedjeminbra_setepenamon">Italian</a> and <a href="http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nektanebo_II">Polish</a> Wikipedias agree on this translation, while the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nectanebo_II">English</a> and <a href="http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nectanebo_II">Spanish</a> ones have something more similar to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nectanebo_I">Nectanebo I</a> <i style="font-family:Code2000">nḫt nbf</i> 'strong is his lord'. The <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/31639364">work</a> cited actually says, “Strong is his lord Horus,” which at least accounts for the <i style="font-family:Code2000">ḥr</i>. But on the very next page it says, “Strong is Horus of Behbeit,” in the course of explaining the visual rebus / pub of the famous <a href="http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/collection_database/The_God_Horus_Protecting_King_Nectanebo_II/ViewObject.aspx?kWd=34.2.1&OID=100000304">statue</a> in the Met where a little Nectanebo under a big Horus holds a <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khepesh">harpesh</a> [= strong] and a small shrine [= Behbeit]. Anyway, in Pseudo-Callisthenes, Nectanebo is also a magician, travels to Macedonia and seduces Philip's wife Olympias by disguising himself as the god Ammon, fitting a description that he magically sent to her in a dream.</p><blockquote><p style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">Ὁ δὲ Νεκτανεβὼς ἀποθέμενος τὸ σκῆπτρον ἀναβαίνει ἐπὶ τὴν κλίνην αὐτῆς καὶ συγγίνεται αὐτῇ, καί φησι πρὸς αὐτήν· “Διάμεινον γύναι, κατὰ γαστρὸς ἔχεις ἄρῥενα παϊδα ἔκδικόν σου γινόμενον καὶ πάσης τῆς οἰκουμένης κοσμοκράτορα βασιλέα.” Καὶ ἐξῆλθεν ἀπὸ τοῦ κοιτῶνος ὁ Νεκτανεβὼς, ἄρας τὸ σκῆπτρον, καὶ ἀπέκρυψεν πάντα ἅ εῖχε πλανικά. (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=aRkMAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#PRA17-PA7,M1">Bk. 1, 7</a>)</p><p>Nectanebo, putting aside his scepter, climbed on to the bed and made love to her. Then he said, ‘Be calm, woman, in your womb you carry a male child who will avenge you and will become king and ruler of all the world.’ Then he left the room, taking his scepter with him, and hid all the pieces of his disguise. (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=fsUO6STWvJsC&pg=PA40&vq="Be+calm,+woman,+in+your+womb+you+carry+a+male+child+who+will+avenge+you+and+will+become+king+and+ruler+of+all+the+world"&sig=S_XJENw5Dp1UMPECJ25PiO2OUbE">Stoneman</a>)</p></blockquote><p>Later on, he used another ruse to carefully orchestrate the time of birth.</p><blockquote><p style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">Πρωΐας δὲ γενομένης, ἰδὼν Φίλιππος τὸ τεχθὲν παιδίον ὑπὸ Ὀλυμπιάδος ἔφη· “Ηβουλόμην μὲν αὐτὸ μὴ ἀναθρέψαι διὰ τὸ γέννημα ἐμὸν μὴ εῖναι· ἀλλ' ἐπειδὴ ὁρω τὴν μὲν σπορὰν οὖσαν θεοῦ, τὸν δὲ τοκετὸν ἐπισημον καὶ κοσμικὸν, τρεφέσθω εῖς μνήμην τοῦ τελευτήσακτός μου ταιδὸς γεννηθέντος ἐκ τῆς προτέρας μου γυναικός· καλείσθω δὲ Ἀλέξανδρος.” (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=aRkMAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#PRA17-PA12,M1">Bk. 1, 13</a>)</p><p>Next morning, when Philip saw Olympias' new-born child, he said: ‘I wished him not to be raised because he was not my own offspring, but now that I see that he is the seed of a god and the birth has been signalled by the heavens, let him be raised in memory of my son by my previous wife, who died, and let him be called Alexander.’ (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=fsUO6STWvJsC&pg=PA44&vq="let+him+be+called+alexander"&sig=ZEnaHuGXAh7ot17mcai6R9KVMs4">Stoneman</a>)</p></blockquote><p>The name Alexander is Greek, meaning 'defender of man'. The feminine form is found in Linear B <span style="font-family:Code2001">𐀀𐀩𐀏𐀭𐀅𐀨</span> <i>a-re-ka-sa-da-ra</i> (MY V 659 line 2; see illustration on pg. 64 of this <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0065-9746%281962%292%3A52%3A7%3C1%3ATMTI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4">article</a>).</p><p>Much of Alexander's rapid conquest was accomplished by taking over the old <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire">Achaemenid empire</a>. His long term ruling plan was evidently a combination of hereditary Macedonian warriors and hereditary Persian administrators. Arrian, citing Aristobulus, says (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=-ch6x1MXuNcC&printsec=titlepage#PPA158,M1">vi, 29</a>) that Alexander had Cyrus' tomb at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasargad">Pasargadae</a> restored. (Even though it names Arrian as the source, the description given by the Wikipedia matches Strabo <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=f_oHAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover#PPA1017,M1">xv, 7</a>, specifically what Aristobulus saw the <i>first</i> time, on the way <i>to</i> India. On the way back, they found it looted. The Wikipedia doesn't mention this or the ordered restoration. The second variation of the inscription, given with an incomplete secondary reference, is from Plutarch <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VFhEAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA355,M1">lxix</a>, who also mentions that the Macedonian perpetrator, one Polymachus, was put to death and that Alexander had a Greek translation added below the Persian. Looks like these couple paragraphs citing Greek historians on Cyrus' tomb need some cleanup. When I get a chance. One of the more interesting spam we received last month was about Cyrus the Great Day, روز کورش بزرگ <i>roz kūrash buzurg</i>, October 29, and a modern <a href="http://www.savepasargad.com/">appeal</a> to restore the tomb.) Pahlavi sources naturally condemned Alexander as <i><a href="http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/database/titusinx/titusinx.asp?LXLANG=922&LXWORD=gizistag&LCPL=1&TCPL=1&C=A&T=0">gizistag</a></i> 'accursed'. But the later romance tradition sought to adopt Alexander as their own. Sikandar (سکندر Alexander, also Iskandar اسکندر) is the son of the Persian king Dārāb (داراب Darius) and the daughter of Failaqūs (فیلقوس Philip). He was born in his maternal grandfather's court because his mother had bad breath and was sent back, but not before she became pregnant; Philip pretends that the child is his own. The bad breath was actually cured, but the Persian king had already lost interest. In one version, she is cured by using <a href="http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/usdisp/callitris.html">sandarac</a> (<a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:6131.steingass">سندروس</a> <i>sandaros</i>, the ξύλον θύϊνον '<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyine_wood">thyine wood</a>' of <a href="http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/c.pl?book=Rev&chapter=18&verse=12&version=KJV#12">Rev. 18:12</a>); the queen being conveniently named Halāi, the child is named Halāi-Sandaros, making his name Persian too.</p><p>We now come to the version of the story in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdowsi">Ferdowsi</a> (فردوسی)'s <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a></i> (شاهنامه), which is the actual point of this post. Here the mother's name is Nāhīd (<a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:1207.steingass">ناهید</a>, the planet Venus and a Zoroastrian <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anahita">goddess</a> whose temple was at Pasargadae).</p><blockquote><p dir="rtl">پزشکان داننده را خواندند<br>به نزدیک ناهید بنشاندند<br><br>یکی مرد بینادل و نیک​رای<br>پژوهید تا دارو آمد به جای<br><br>گیاهی که سوزنده​ی کام بود<br>به روم اندر اسکندرش نام بود<br><br>بمالید بر کام او بر پزشک<br>ببارید چندی ز مژگان سرشک<br><br>بشد ناخوشی بوی و کامش بسوخت<br>به کردار دیبا رخش برفروخت<br><br>اگر چند مشکین شد آن خوب​چهر<br>دژم شد دلارای را جای مهر<br><br>دل پادشا سرد گشت از عروس<br>فرستاد بازش بر فیلقوس<br><br>غمی دختر و کودک اندر نهان<br>نگفت آن سخن با کسی در جهان<br><br>چو نه ماه بگذشت بر خوب​چهر<br>یکی کودک آمد چو تابنده مهر<br><br>ز بالا و اروند و بویا برش<br>سکندر همی خواندی مادرش<br><br>بفرخ همی داشت آن نام را<br>کزو یافت از ناخوشی کام را (<a href="http://shahnameh.recent.ir/default.aspx?item=334&page=4">32.4</a>)</p><p style="font-family:Code2000">pazaškān dāninde rā xwāndand<br>be nazdīkān nāhīd binšāndand<br><br>yake mard bīnādil u neko-rāy<br>pižūhīda tā dārū āmad be jāy<br><br>gīyāhe ke sozandahe kām būd<br>be rūm andar iskandaruš nām būd<br><br>bamālīda bar kām o bar pizišk<br>babārīd čande ze mužagān sirišk<br><br>bašidda banāxwuš boy u kamaš basoxt<br>be kirdār dībā raxš barfuroxt<br><br>agar čand muškīn šadd ān xūb-čihr<br>dižam šadd dilārāy rā jāy mihr<br><br>dil pādšā sard gašt az ʻarūs<br>firistād bāzaš bar failaqūs<br><br>qamī duxtar u kūdak andar nihān<br>neguft ān suxun bā kasī dar jahān<br><br>čū be māh baguẕašt bar xūb-čihr<br>yake kūdak āmad čū tābandah mihr<br><br>ze bālā u ārwand u boyā baraš<br>sikandar hamī xwānde mādaraš<br><br>bafarrux hamī dāšt ān nām rā<br>kazo yāft az banāxwuš kām rā</p><p>They summoned skilful leeches to Náhíd,<br>And one of them, a shrewd and prudent man,<br>Examined till he found a remedy<br>A herb whereby the gullet is inflamed,<br>Called in the Rúman tongue “iskandar.” This<br>He rubbed upon the palate of the queen,<br>And caused her eyes to water lustily.<br>The fetor fled away, her palate burned,<br>Her face shone like brocade; but though the Fair<br>Was sweet as musk Dáráb had ceased to love her,<br>The monarch's heart turned coldly from his bride,<br>And so he sent her back to Failakús.<br>She was with child but told not any one.<br>Nine months passed and from that fair dame was born<br>A babe like radiant Sol. She used to call him<br>Sikandar since he was so tall, well favoured,<br>And sweet of breath, for she esteemed the name<br>Of what had sweetened her own palate lucky, (tr. <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=CixkKv_ywoMC&pg=PA26&dq=iskandar&ei=TJc3R6DhJp_SiQG-vuzrAQ&ie=ISO-8859-1&sig=GdPiT1ClcNv8SSGs7IMmjlW6dc4">Warner & Warner</a>)</p></blockquote><p>So, Iskandar was named after <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:2764.steingass">اسكندروس</a> <i>iskandarūs</i> 'garlic'. This is not a native Persian word (as the text admits). It has been proposed that this word comes from or Greek <span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">σκόροδον</span> or Latin <i>ascalonium</i> 'shallot', though neither seems entirely satisfactory. It also seems possible that some plant variety was actually named after the person.</p><p>Alexander's eastward conquests ended when his men refused to cross the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphasis">Hyphasis River</a>. (<span style="font-family:New Athena Unicode">Ὑφασις</span> < विपाशा vipāśā 'unfettered', supposedly because it destroyed the cords that the sage <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasishta">Vasishṭha</a> वसिष्ठ had tied around himself, intending to <a href="http://www.bharatadesam.com/spiritual/mahabharata/mahabharata_13a003.php">drown</a> / <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:4950.platts">hang</a> himself from grief when his sons were killed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishvamitra">Viśvāmitra</a> विश्वामित्र. In a chapter titled <i>The Mighty Rivers of India</i>, <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/38874297">Karttunen</a> observes that <i>vi-</i> > <i>hy-</i> indicates a Persian intermediary, like with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hystaspes">Hystaspes</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydarnes">Hydarnes</a>. The Wikipedia also offers a folk-etymology of the modern name.) There is no trace of him reaching as far as he did in Indian literature or tradition. But the satrapies along the way and westward expansion by Indian kingdoms meant that more or less regular commerce was established. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka">edicts</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashoka">Aśoka</a>, the oldest surviving Indian documents (aside from the mysterious <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_valley_inscriptions">Indus valley inscriptions</a>) mention the Yonas (that is, Ionians: Sanskrit यवन <i>yavana</i> — a word applied to successively larger groups: Greeks, then Europeans, then foreigners in general) and a king Alikasudaro (probably <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Epirus">Alexander II of Epirus</a>; line 9 of rock edict #13 <a href="http://www.ebmp.org/a_inscription.php?catid=CKI0013">here</a>). He even issued an edict in Greek and Aramaic. The adjacent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhist</a> kingdoms applied Hellenistic aesthetics to an emergent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art">iconography</a> of the Buddha and Buddhist saints, in particular in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhara">Gandhāra</a><small> (we have a Gandhāran boddhisattva in our dining room)</small>.</p><p>Alexander the Great appears on the bad-guy short list of a certain kind of fanatical Hindu nationalist. (Again see the Alexander on the Web <a href="http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/alexander/19.html#Indian">site</a> for examples.) The enemy is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_Invasion_Theory">Aryan invasion theory</a> (it may very well be that all uses of the word <i>Aryan</i> are now indications of some kind of fringe), an imagined mix of prehistoric migrations, historical conquests, and language interactions, against which Sanskrit must clearly be more closely related to Dravidian languages like Tamil (and indeed long contact has led to much borrowing in both directions) since a contrary claim implies ravaging hordes of Europeans. Once language and religion get mixed in, other villains are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jones_(philologist)">William Jones</a> for claiming that Sanskrit comes from Greek and Latin, though pretty much all he said on the subject is the one sentence quoted in Wikipedia and even that supposes a common source; and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Muller">Max Müller</a> for promoting Christianity, though he edited The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Books_of_the_East">Sacred Books of the East</a>. These men can well be challenged as ruthless conquerors, imperialists and racists, but that is not grounds for repudiating reputable history or sound science. More recently, a <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/book/21206759">book</a> by <a href="http://www.religion.emory.edu/faculty/courtright.html">Paul Courtright</a> has become the center of controversy, not for applying the psychological principles of contemporary religious studies, but for fabricating blasphemous quotes from Hindu scripture or at least promoting deliberately bad translations, though his works seems to have the usual citation apparatus. Here in the States, the battleground is correcting high school textbooks, going beyond the critically important goal of removing imperialist assumptions and negative ethnic and religious stereotypes to, taking a cue from Creationists and extreme “Ancient Egypt was African” proponents, adding claims that are not generally accepted by mainstream experts. Though it is not impossible, I do not imagine that the accepted theory of the major language families is likely to change significantly. But there are some other generally interesting questions involved, like “Is Hinduism more polytheistic than Roman Catholicism?” However since discussions get so polarized so fast, it's best to once again mostly avoid them here.</p><p>Aśoka was also one of the most powerful vegetarian proselytizers ever. For instance, here is part of his Rock Edict #1. Since <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brāhmī_script">Brāhmi</a> is not supported in Unicode yet, here is a picture (from <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PXMIAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPT22,M1">here</a>; the same image is also <a href="http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html#FOURTEEN">here</a>).</p><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrimcCCFnrzZjrhDLGG4HFKokr8wkZhmF_mGY1pH4Q6IUhxUQEWSOevWKxUgIJdeBGz_MF-5TjHFtKhk0OHdSE19aK-nG9hhESSoCjCqkZMtdzyIhqCPfIoLpa4g-EQ5CyjijsTP87zMk/s200/girnar-1.png" border="0" alt="Girnir 1" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5133334802264085602"/> <p>Which reads:</p><blockquote style="font-family:Code2000"> pu rā ma hā na se ja mā<br>de vā naṃ pi ya sa pi ya da si no ra ño a nu di va saṃ ba<br>hū ni pā ṇa sa ta sa ha sā ni ā ra bhi su sū pā thā ya<br>sa a ja ya dā a yaṃ dhaṃ ma li pi li khi tā tī e va pā<br>ṇa ā ra bhi re sū pā thā ya dva me ra e ko ma go so pi<br>ma go na dhū vo e te pā tī pā ṇā pa chā na ā ra bhi saṃ re</blockquote><p>Which gets cleaned up a little <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PXMIAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA65,M1">here</a> to:</p><blockquote style="font-family:Code2000">pura mahânasaphi Devânampiyasa Piyadasino Ranyo anudivasam bahûni pâna satasahasâni ârabhisu sûpâthâya sa aja yadâ ayam dhammalipi likhitâtî eva pâṇa ârabhire supâthâya dwamera eko mago so pi mago na dhuvo ete pâti pânâ pacchâ na ârabhisante.</blockquote><p>(A slightly different version of the text of the same edict from elsewhere is <a href="http://www.ebmp.org/a_inscription.php?catid=CKI0001">here</a>.) The translation is something like:</p><blockquote><p>Formerly, in the kitchen of King Devanampriya Priyadarsi ('Beloved-of-the-Gods of-Loving-Regard'), every day hundreds of thousands of animals were killed to make curry. But now with the writing of this Dharma edict only three creatures, two peacocks and a deer, are killed to make curry, and the deer not always. And in the future, not even these three creatures will be killed.</p></blockquote><p>The word <i>sūpā-</i>, translated 'curry', is <a href="http://www.indo-european.nl/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=leiden&morpho=0&basename=\data\ie\pokorny&text_lemma=seu-1&method_lemma=beginning">cognate</a> with English <i>soup</i> and also means that.</p><p>In March, 1890, Lieutenant (later Major-General Sir) Hamilton Bower of the Indian Army was in Chinese Turkestan on the trail of a murderer named Dad Mahomed. (Bower's “A Trip to Turkistan” from <i>The Geographical Journal</i> can be found in <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0016-7398(189503)5:3<240:ATTT>2.0.CO;2-P">JSTOR</a> or <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=yWoMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA255">Google Books</a>, or in abbreviated form <a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/uclma/geo.pdf">here</a>. A <i>Confidential Report of a Journey in Chinese Turkistan 1889-90</i> is mentioned by a number of <a href="http://www.pamirs.org/references.htm">bibliographies</a>, but evidently harder to find. Bower is more famous as an explorer of Tibet.) In Kumtura, near <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kucha">Kuchar</a>, he was sold a book of fifty-one birch-bark leaves in wooden boards, which came to be known as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bower_Manuscript">Bower Manuscript</a>. He sent it along to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic_Society_of_Bengal">Asiatic Society of Bengal</a>. You can see its initial notice and some images (which didn't scan very well) in their <i>Proceedings</i> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=x7RZDPlsHucC&pg=PA221">here</a>. Here it passed to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_Hoernle">A. F. Rudolf Hoernle</a>, who recognized the script as one used in Northwestern India (now known as Gupta or Late Brāhmi) and the language as Sanskrit. You can read his initial remarks a few months later <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OSMukuDG5KEC&printsec=titlepage#PPA54,M1">here</a> and some more in a later address as President of the Society <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=IEEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA63">here</a>. (Some vandal has changed the Wikipedia to claim that the manuscript is in Tamil, either through zealous nationalism or more likely just to cause trouble. I'll probably undo that soon.)</p><p>Hoernle published some additional remarks and a first installment of a translation as monographs for the <i>Journal</i> of the Society. Since it does not appear to be online, I have scanned the latter (my copy is very brittle) and since there is no valid copyright, I put it <a href="http://home.comcast.net/~mmcm/scans/Bower.pdf">here</a> for downloading. He followed this up with a series of translations with notes, transcriptions, transliterations and facsimiles, the three-volume <a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/7083012">work</a> completing in 1913. This definitive edition has been reprinted in India several times relatively recently, but I have had no luck getting hold of a copy (a couple of shipments went missing, though I normally have no such trouble). The transliteration is in <a href="http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gret_utf.htm#BowerMs">GRETIL</a>. Two of the volumes are in the Digital Library of India (which does not seem to get very high page ranks in searches), but the <a href="http://dli.iiit.ac.in/cgi-bin/Browse/scripts/use_scripts/advnew/allmetainfo.cgi?barcode=2020030004534">scan</a> appears to be defective, lacking much of the transliteration. But it does give his final translation.</p><p>The manuscript is one of the oldest surviving Indian books, preserved in the desert where there is no monsoon. It was found in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupa">stūpa</a> associated with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara">vihāra</a> and the original monk owner appears to have been named Yaśomitra. Hoernle dated it 350-500 CE, with modern scholars tending toward the later end. The manuscript contains seven documents: three on Ayurvedic medicine, two on fortune telling with dice, and two with chants against snake-bite. The non-medical ones have significantly more Prākritisms. The first medical one is on the uses of garlic and, before getting into treatments, starts with a more or less self-contained poem on the origins of garlic (and its folk etymology), which is the second point of this post.</p><blockquote><p style="font-family:Uttara">दृष्ट्वा पत्रैर्हरितहरितैरिन्द्रनीलप्रकाशैः कन्दैः कुन्दस्फटिककुमुदेन्द्वङशुशंखाभ्रशुभ्रैः [।] उत्पन्नास्थो मुनिमुपगतः सुश्रुतः काशिराजं किन्न्वेतत्स्यादथ स भगवानाह तस्मै यथावत् ॥<br>पुरामृतं प्रमथितमसुरेन्द्रः स्वयं पपौ [।] तस्य चिच्छेद भगवानुत्तमांगं जनार्द्दनः ॥<br>कण्ठनाडी समासन्ना विच्छिन्ने तस्य मूर्धनि [।] विन्दवः पतिता भूमावाद्यं तस्येह जन्म तु ॥<br>न भक्षयंत्येनमतश्च विप्राः शरीरसंपर्क्कविनिःसृतत्वात् [।] गन्धोग्रतामप्यत एव चास्य वदंति शास्त्राधिगमप्रवीणाः ॥<br>लवणरस[वियोगा]दाहुरेन रशूनम् लशुन इति तु संज्ञा चास्य लोकप्रतीता [।] बहुभिरिह किमुक्तैर्द्देशभाषाभिधानैः शृणु रसगुणवीर्याण्यस्य चैवोपयोगात् ॥<br>रसे च पाके च कटुः प्रदिष्टः पाके तथा स्वादुरुदाहृतो न्यः [।] लघुश्च गन्धेन सदुर्ज्जराश्रवीर्येण चोष्णः प्रथितश्च वृष्यः ॥<br>आंब्लोष्णस्नेहभावात्पवनबलहरः प्रोक्तो मुनिवृषैः माधुर्यात्पित्तभावादपि च स रसतया पित्तप्रशमनः [।] औष्ण्यात्तैक्ष्ण्यात्कटुत्वात्कफबलविजयी विद्वद्भिरुदितः सर्वान्रोगान्निहन्यादिति विधिविहितो दोषत्रयहरः ॥<br>पवनं विनिहंत्यपि चास्थिगतं कफमप्यचिरादुदितं शमयेत् [।] जनयेदपि चाग्निबलं प्रबलं बलवर्ण्णकरः प्रवरश्च मतः ॥<br>अथ बहुविधमद्यमांससर्पिर्यवगोधूमभुजां सुखात्मकानाम् [।] अयमिह लशुनोत्सवः प्रयोज्यो हिमकाले च मधौ च माधवे च ॥<br>त्यज्यंते कामिनीभिर्जयनसमुचिता यत्र काञ्चीकलापाः हाराः शैत्यान्न वक्षस्तनतटयुगलापीडनात्संप्रयांति [।] कांता नेन्द्वन्शुजालव्यतिकरसुभगाहर्म्यपृष्ठोपभोगाः काले तस्मिन्प्रयोज्यो ह्यगुरु बहुमतं कुंकुमांकाश्च यत्र ॥<br>हर्म्याग्रेष्वथ तोरणेषु वलभीद्वारेषु चाविष्कृताः कन्दाढ्या लशुनस्रजो विरचयेद्भूमौ [त]थैवार्च्चनम् [।] मालास्तत्परिचारकस्य च जनस्यारोपयेत्तन्मयीरित्यस्यैष विधिर्ज्जनस्य विहितः स्वल्पोवमानामतः ॥</p><p style="font-family:Code2000">Dṛishṭvâ patrair=harita-haritair=indranîla-prakâśaiḥ kandaiḥ kunda-sphaṭika-ku-mud-êndvaṅśu-śaṃkh-âbhra-śubhraiḥ [|] utpann-âsthô m[u]nim=upagataḥ Suśrutaḥ Kâśirájaṃ kinnv=êtat-syâd=atha sa bhagavân=âha tasmai yathâvat || [9||]<br>Pur=âmṛitaṃ pramathitam=asur-êndraḥ svayaṃ papau [|] tasya chichchhêda bhagavân=u-ttamâṃgaṃ Janârddanaḥ || [10||]<br>Kaṇṭha-nâḍî samâsannâ vichchhinnê tasya mûrdhani [|] vindavaḥ patitâ bhûmâv=âdyaṃ tasy=êha janma tu || [11||]<br>Na bhakshaya[ṃ]ty=ênam=ataś=cha viprâḥ śarîra-saṃparkka-viniḥ-sṛitatvât [|] gandh-ôgratâm=apy=ata êva ch=âsya vadaṃti śâstr-âdhigama-pravîṇâḥ || [12||]<br>Lavaṇa-rasa-viyôgâd=âhur=ênaṃ raśû-na(m) laśuna iti tu saṃjñâ ch=âsya lôka-pratîtâ [|] bahubhir=iha kim=uktair=d=dêśa-bhâsh-âbhidhânaiḥ śṛiṇu rasa-guṇa-vîryâṇy=asya ch=aiv=ôpayôgât || [13||]<br>Rasê cha pâkê cha kaṭuḥ pra-dishṭaḥ pâkê tathâ svâdur=udâhṛitô nyaḥ [|] laghuś=cha gandhêna sa-durjjar-âśra-vîryêṇa ch=ôshṇaḥ prathitaś=cha vṛishyaḥ || [14||]<br>Âṃbl-ôshṇa-snêha-bhâvât=pavana-bala-haraḥ prôktô muni-vṛishaiḥ mâdhuryât=pitta-bhâvâd=api cha sa rasatayâ pitta-praśamanaḥ [|] aushṇyât=taikshṇyât=kaṭutvât=kapha-bala-vijayî vidvadbhir=uditaḥ sarvân=rôgân=nihanyâd=iti vidhi-vihitô dôsha-traya-haraḥ || [15||]<br>Pavanaṃ vinihaṃty=api ch=âsthi-gataṃ kapham=apy=achirâd=uditaṃ śamayêt [|] janayêd=api ch=âgni-balaṃ prabalaṃ bala-varṇṇa-karaḥ prava-raś=cha mataḥ || [16||]<br>Atha bahu-vidha-madya-mâṃsa-sarpir-yava-gôdhûma-bhujâṃ sukh-âtmakânâm [|] ayam=iha laśun-ôtsavaḥ prayôjyô hima-kâlê cha madhau cha mâdha-vê cha || [17||]<br>Tyajyaṃtê kâminîbhir=jayana-samuchitâ yatra kâñchî-kalâpâḥ hârâḥ śaityân=na vakshas-tana-taṭa-yugal-âpîḍanât=saṃprayâṃti [|] kâṃtâ n=êndv-anśu-jâla-vyatikara-subhagâ-harmya-pṛishṭh-ôpabhôgâḥ kâlê tasmin=prayôjyô hy=aguru bahu-mataṃ kuṃkum-âṃkâś=cha yatra || [18||]<br>Harmy-âgrêshv=atha tôra-ṇêshu valabhî-dvârêshu ch=âvishkṛitâḥ kand-âḍhyâ laśuna-srajô virachayêd=bhûmau tath=aiv=ârchchanam [|] mâlâs=tat-parichârakasya cha janasy=ârô-payêt=tan-mayîr=ity=asy=aisha vidhir=j=janasya vihitaḥ svalpô-vamânâm=ataḥ || [19||]</p><p>(Verse 9.) Having observed <i>a plant</i> with leaves dark-blue like sapphire, <i>and</i> with bulbs white like jasmine, crystal, the white lotus, moon-rays, conch-shell or mica, <i>and</i> having his attention aroused <i>thereby</i>, Suśruta approached the Muni King of Kâśi (<i>i.e.</i>, Benares) <i>with the enquiry</i>, what it could be. Then that holy man replied to him as follows:<br>(Verse 10 and 11.) Of yore the lord of the Asuras himself drank the forth-churned nectar; his head the holy Janârdana (<i>i.e.</i>, Vishṇu) cut off. (11.) The windpipe remained attached to the severed head; <i>from it</i> drops fell on the ground, <i>and</i> those were its (<i>i.e.</i>, garlic's) first origin.<br>(Verse 12.) Hence Brâhmans do not eat it, because of its having originated from something connected with a (living) body; its evil smell also the learned in sacred lore declare to be due to the same cause.<br>(Verse 13.) Because of the absence of salty taste they call it ‘Raśûna’ and its designation of ‘Laśuna’ is well-known among the people. What need to mention the many names by which it is called in the languages of <i>different</i> countries? Hear only its tastes, properties, and powers on account of <i>their importance for</i> its medicinal use.<br>(Verse 14.) In tasting as well as in digesting it is declared to be pungent; but in digesting it is also said to be sweet; it is of light, and, as shown by its smell, difficult to digest; with regard to its power, it is hot, and it is famed as an aphrodisiac.<br>(Verse 15.) By the foremost Munis it has been declared to be, on account of its sour, hot and oily nature, a means of reducing the strength of the air-humour, and, on account of its sweet and bitter nature, as shown by its taste, also to be a means of abating the bile-humour. On account of its hot, sharp, and pungent nature it is said by the learned to be a subduer of the strength of the phlegm-humour. It was thus appointed by the Creator a means of removing the <i>defects of these</i> three humours, in order that it should cure all diseases.<br>(Verse 16.) It kills also the air-humour when it has got into the bones, and rectifies also the phlegm-humour when it (<i>i.e.</i>, its disorder) is not of any long standing; it also greatly stimulates the digestive power, and may be considered an excellent means for restoring vital power and colour.<br>(Verse 17.) Now by those who want to enjoy in comfort many sorts of liquor, flesh, clarified butter, barley and wheat, the festival of the garlic, here described, is to be observed, in the winter season as well as in the months of Madhu and Mâdhava.<br>(Verse 18.) When trimmed girdles fit for the conquest <i>of men</i>, are given up by the women, <i>and</i> necklaces are not worn by (<i>lit</i>., do not approach) their bosoms, on account of their distressing cold, <i>and when</i> enjoyments on the roofs of one's mansions, <i>otherwise </i>so pleasant from the contact with the multitude of the rays of the moon, are not coveted, at that time it should be observed, also when Aguru (fragrant aloe) is much esteemed and <i>the bodies</i> are daubed with Kumkuma (saffron).<br>(Verse 19.) Then in the fronts of the houses, on their gateways, and on the doors of the pavilions, erected over them, garlands of garlic richly set with its bulbs should be displayed, and on the ground itself one should have worship performed. One should also cause the people of one's household to wear chaplets made of the same (garlic). This is the manner <i>for observing the festival</i>, appointed for the people, <i>and</i> known by the name of Svalpôvamâ.</p></blockquote><p>(Another translation can be found <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=XUcnOI4z5g4C&pg=PA155&dq=rasuna+lasuna&ei=JlcpR8P1KY6-7wLlyIDpDg&ie=ISO-8859-1&sig=jRLc_15DwaNiAGRLQPVZ_7veptY#PPA154,M1">here</a> and a Dutch one <a href="http://agniveda.com/bowermanuscript.pdf">here</a>.)</p><p>There is one discrepancy between the Nagari transcription and the transliteration in the earlier publication. In verse 18, 'saffron' (Classical Sanskrit <span style="font-family:Uttara">कुङ्कुम</span> <i style="font-family:Code2000">kuṅkuma</i>) is given as <i style="font-family:Code2000">kuṃkum</i> but <span style="font-family:Uttara">कुकुंम</span> was printed, which would be the impossible <i style="font-family:Code2000">kukuṃm</i>; so I've assumed <span style="font-family:Uttara">कुंकुम</span> (like it's spelled in Marathi). There are more differences between the transliteration and the one in GRETIL than are accounted for just by the different schemes used. For instance, in the GRETIL text, 'moon-rays' is written <i style="font-family:Code2000">endvaṃśu</i> in verse 9 but <i style="font-family:Code2000">endvaṅśu</i> in verse 18; of course, it's possible that the manuscript really is inconsistent in when nasals are written with anusvara. More clearly a typo in transcribing online is <i>nimakāle</i> for <i>himakāle</i> '[in the] winter time'. Beside these and other single letter differences, the online version adds <i style="font-family:Code2000">khalu</i> after <i style="font-family:Code2000">atha</i> at the start of verse 17; since <span style="font-family:Uttara">अथ</span> and <span style="font-family:Uttara">अथ खलु</span> are so close as a way of keeping a narrative going, the translation is no real guide, though I suspect that this is a real emendation. Anyway, because of all these, I've decided against just copying the online transliteration and gone with the one I can proofread. When I manage to track down a copy of the later work, or it shows up digitized online, I can update it.</p><p>The folk etymology then for <span style="font-family:Uttara">लशुन</span> <i style="font-family:Code2000">laśuna</i> is <span style="font-family:Uttara">रसुन</span> <i style="font-family:Code2000">rasuna</i> from [<span style="font-family:Uttara">लवण</span> <i style="font-family:Code2000">lavaṇa</i> 'salty'] <span style="font-family:Uttara">रस</span> <i style="font-family:Code2000">rasa</i> 'taste' <span style="font-family:Uttara">ऊन</span> <i style="font-family:Code2000">ūna</i> '-less'. As for mainstream derivations, since there is no Indo-European analogue, in this <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0041-977X(1945)11:3<595:DSV>2.0.CO;2-5">paper</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Burrow">Thomas Burrow</a> proposes a Dravidian source, noting Kui <i style="font-family:Code2000">lesuṛi</i> and Malto <i style="font-family:Code2000">nasnu</i>. Words derived from the Sanskrit and words of the 'white onion' sort in the major Dravidian languages were listed in the earlier <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/03/garlic.html">garlic</a> post. Further out on the limb, Tóth's <i><a href="http://mek.oszk.hu/04500/04509/">Etymological dictionary of Hungarian</a></i>, which aims to prove that it descends from Sumerian, relates Hungarian <i>csomó</i> 'knot', Sumerian <a href="http://psd.museum.upenn.edu/epsd/epsd/e5561.html">šum</a> (also mentioned in the earlier post) and <i>lasuna</i>.</p><p>In one of those odd coincidences that ultimately don't mean anything, Hoernle died November 11, 1918, the day of the signing of Armistice ending World War I. Of course, this was only a pause in the succession of troubles caused by nationalist interests playing out on the trans-national stage, among other things. It is commemorated this weekend as Veterans Day.</p><p>It was the discovery of the Bower Manuscript that led the Indian Government and the British Museum to launch <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Aurel_Stein">Sir Aurel Stein</a>'s Silk Road expedition, which would discover the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunhuang_Caves">Dunhuang caves</a>, plus loads more manuscripts, including ones in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocharian_languages">Tocharian</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saka_language">Khotanese</a>, <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/2569564">on Alexander's track</a>. Other countries undertook similar efforts, of course: see outline <a href="http://idp.bl.uk/education/orientalists/index.a4d">here</a> or the popular account in <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/74125">Foreign Devils on the Silk Road</a></i>. As the Wikipedia points out, Hoernle's reputation suffered as a result of his being taken in by some forgeries, but it recovered in part due to work on these new discoveries; see summary <a href="http://idp.bl.uk/pages/collections_en.a4d">here</a>.</p><p>Lately I've thought that someone should write a book of such literary causes and effects. I do not mean the obvious ones, such as Stein being inspired by <a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/777552"><i>Through Asia</i></a>, as mentioned by the Wikipedia. Rather ones where the origin is significantly more obscure or unexpected, like the surprise of the Bower manuscript. Some more examples:</p><ul><li>When <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=6e6jmGcQ8JwC&pg=PA41&vq=tryon">Benjamin Franklin</a> was sixteen, he read a book by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Tryon">Thomas Tryon</a> and became a vegetarian. Everyone still reads Franklin's <i>Autobiography</i>, but Tryon only shows up in histories of vegetarianism and the occasional blog <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/09/kookoo.html">post</a>.</li><li>It was reading <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percival_Lowell">Percival Lowell</a>'s <i>Soul of the Far East</i> that <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=fUoLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA158&dq=lowell+"Soul+of+the+Far+East"">persuaded</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafcadio_Hearn">Lafcadio Hearn</a> to go to Japan. He <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WLJAXuiJQkgC&pg=PA479&dq=lowell+"Soul+of+the+Far+East"">considered</a> it the best book in English on Japanese life, though he disagreed some with it and <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=WLJAXuiJQkgC&pg=PA479&dq=lowell+"Soul+of+the+Far+East"">even more</a> with <i>Occult Japan</i>. Today Lowell is remembered as an astronomer and Hearn as the essential interpreter of Japan.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Merton">Thomas Merton</a> read <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce">James Joyce</a>'s <i>Ulysses</i> and was one of the earlier writers on <i>Finnegans Wake</i>. But he always bogged down on <i>A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man</i>, where Joyce's conflicts with Catholicism are laid out straightforwardly. When he finally did succeed, he converted and became a monk and one of the most influential modern Catholic authors.</li></ul></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-27475741205327244742007-10-09T02:10:00.002-05:002010-08-17T08:56:11.348-05:00Hangul Day<p>October 9 is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul_Day">Hangul Day</a> (<span xml:lang="ko" lang="ko">한글날</span><span xml:lang="ko"> </span><i>Han'gŭllal</i>), an annual commemoration of the 1446 proclamation of the invention of the Korean alphabet by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Sejong">King Sejong</a> (<span xml:lang="ko" lang="ko">세종</span><span xml:lang="ko">) and / or his scholars. Hangul is the most sophisticated writing system actually in use for a real language. Geoffrey Sampson, in his <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/148276">Writing Systems : A Linguistic Introduction</a></i>, at the end of a chapter on Hangul (p. 144), writes, “Whether or not it is ultimately the best of all conceivable scripts for Korean, Han'gul must unquestionably rank as one of the great intellectual achievements of humankind.”</span></p><p>This year, we decided to go to the Korean market near MIT (after dinner at the Bengali restaurant, where the eggplant and potato dishes are made with generous amounts of mustard oil, a topic for another day), not just for the groceries, but also their typography.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2007/10/hangul-day_09.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>Wikipedia's article on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul">Hangul</a> is pretty thorough, but it is worth summarizing a few points.</p><ul><li>The letters of the Hangul script mostly represent the phonemes of Korean.</li><li>Vowel length is not represented, though it is distinguished: for example, 말 <i>mal</i> 'horse' vs. <i>māl</i> 'language'. But the functional load of vowel length is not very great, like in Latin, and unlike in Finnish. Also, this distinction is disappearing from the modern language.</li><li>The basic letter forms combine into clusters (single, double and triple) called <i>chamo</i> 자모, which are the building blocks of the script.</li><li>Hangul can defensibly be called a featural script, in that like aspects of each phoneme are presented by like graphics in the <i>chamo</i>. This is the position taken by Sampson and in <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/book/2538305">The World's Writing Systems</a></i>. However, <a href="http://home.gwu.edu/~kimrenau/">Young-Key Kim-Renaud</a> in a paper in the collection <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/1752154"><i>The Korean Alphabet</i></a>, which she also edited, does not accept this classification and considers that it actually diminishes the achievement.</li><li>The proclamation was titled 訓民正音 <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunmin_Jeongeum">Hunmin Chŏng'ŭm</a></i> 'The Correct Sounds for the Instruction of the People'. This was also the official name of the script. It was written in Classical Chinese, the language of scholars; it was also published in a form where each Chinese character had a smaller Hangul phonetic beside it. The Chinese text is in <a href="http://ko.wikisource.org/wiki/훈민정음">Wikisource</a>. A scan of the annotated version is <a href="http://www.hangul.or.kr/M2-4-1.htm">online</a> on the Hangul Foundation <a href="http://www.hangul.or.kr/">site</a>. It is also available as a Unicode <a href="http://faq.ktug.or.kr/wiki/uploads/hunmin.uni">text file</a>, with the syllables that cannot be represented (since Unicode encodes Modern Korean) in a Private Use Area for which there is a New Batang font (Google for <kbd>nbatang.ttf</kbd>).</li><li>In 1940, a second expository document from the time of King Sejong was discovered, titled 訓民正音解例 <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunmin_Jeongeum_Haerye">Hunmin Chŏng-ŭm Haerye</a></i> '… Explanations and Examples'. It is written in Classical Chinese, with Hangul only used when it is explained. It is on the same Wikisource page and <a href="http://www.tufs.ac.jp/ts/personal/choes/korean/middle/kairei.html">here</a> (with a Japanese translation). A scan is <a href="http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/Hunminjongum/hun/p01.htm">here</a> (with a partial German translation).</li><li>The <i>Haerye</i> proves that the shapes of the consonants were chosen to represent the physical points of articulation and not as abstract designs. For instance,<blockquote><p>牙音ㄱ,象舌根閉喉之形。<br>舌音ㄴ,象舌附上腭之形。 (<a href="http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/Hunminjongum/hun/p09.htm">p. 9</a>)</p><p>The tooth sound <i>k</i> has the shape of the back of the tongue closing the throat.<br>The tongue sound <i>n</i> has the shape of the tongue attached to the roof of the mouth.</p></blockquote></li><li>Although it is generally assumed that the design was a group effort, there is no reason to doubt that King Sejong participated and it is even possible, as proposed in a paper by Ki-Moon Lee in <i>The Korean Alphabet</i>, that he was primarily or solely responsible. Lee provides quotes claiming responsibility fairly directly and addressing the obvious questions, such as how he could have time in addition to affairs of state.</li><li>It is also not known to what extent the design of Hangul was directly influenced by other scripts. Possible antecedents, and in particular <a href="http://www.babelstone.co.uk/Phags-pa/">'Phags-pa</a>, are discussed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gari_Ledyard">Gari Ledyard</a> in his <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/42008287">thesis</a> and a paper in <i>The Korean Alphabet</i>.</li><li>The literati naturally objected to the new script as a threat to their prestige. This lent support to alternative names for the script such as 언문 <i>ŏnmun</i> 'vernacular script'.</li><li>Only a few decades after Sejong the Great, the script also lost royal support: it was banned by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeonsangun_of_Joseon">Yŏnsan'gun</a> (연산군) the not-so-Great, supposedly because it provided more people with the means to post criticism of his rule.</li><li>Through the end of the 19th century, therefore, Hangul was primarily used for novels and light poetry.</li><li>The name <i>Han'gŭl</i> 'great script' (or 'Korean script') was only coined at the beginning of the 20th century by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ju_Sigyeong">Chu Sigyŏng</a>. I have not seen a specific citation of earliest occurrence. The Wikipedia says 1912 on the Hangul page and between 1910 and 1913 on his page. <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/book/21825443">Martin</a> just says 1910. This <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=oSXtk6uxrhgC&pg=PA332&dq=han'gul+chu+sigyong&ei=BrkJR5SuIoTg6wK42pmDAg&sig=eZrjel6VDR97T4AgvJRmdysHG8M">footnote</a> points to Ross King's article on language issues in <a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/36704521"><i>Korea Briefing : Toward Reunification</i></a>, which gives the same 1910-1913 range, with a footnote pointing to <a href="http://www.aladdin.co.kr/shop/wproduct.aspx?ISBN=8975605094">this</a> <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/43690967">book</a> (<i>Problems of Korean Language and Writing the Unification Age</i>) by Ko Yŏng-Gŭn (고영근), with no particular page reference, but perhaps intending 한글의 유래 <i>‘Hangul’-ŭi yurae</i> 'The Origin of the word “Han'gŭl”', as also referenced <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nonRl2cerIgC&pg=PA190&dq="the+origin+of+the+word&as_brr=0&ei=d4EfR46XIobs7gLfqvjuBw&sig=-ZqWbufdezKnv-LXEnfLnaECyWU">here</a>, and reprinted in several other places. Citing Ko, this <a href="http://www.onhangeul.com/han_history/his_02/kiwon_06.asp">page</a> says it was first used in publication on 23 Mar. 1913 and then in a footnote that it was apparently already in common use on 3 Sept. 1911.</li><li>Korean has a rich set of regular phonetic assimilation rules. For most of its history, Hangul was used to write Korean as pronounced. It was only with 20th century spelling reforms that it became morphophonemic, so that the same stem is spelled the same regardless of (that is, “before applying”) these rules. Already, the Haerye had said:<blockquote><p><span style="font-family:New Batang">如ᄇᆡᆺ곶爲梨花, 여ᇫ의갗爲狐皮, 而ㅅ字可以通用, 故只用ㅅ字.</span> (<a href="http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/Hunminjongum/hun/p42.htm">p. 42</a>)</p><p>[For terminals] like those in <i><span style="font-family:Code2000">pʌys koc</span></i> 'pear blossoms' and <i><span style="font-family:Code2000">yaz˙ɨy kach</span></i> 'fox's skin', <i>s</i> may be applied throughout. Therefore only the letter <i>s</i> is needed. (tr. Ki-Moon Lee <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nonRl2cerIgC&pg=PA20&vq=terminals+s&as_brr=0&sig=NYrtbMIANc7tE-9ZiHszpMiKmo4">p. 20</a>)</p></blockquote>That is, ㅈ <i>c and</i> ㅊ <i>ch </i>are to be spelled ㅅ <i>s</i> when final (not preceding a suffix's vowel), as they were pronounced. However, in King Sejong's own works, such as 月印千江之曲 월인천강지곡 <i>Wŏrin ch'ŏn'gang chi kok</i> 'Songs of the Moon Shining on a Thousand Rivers', the several different terminal consonants are used, suggesting that he himself favored the approach now used.</li><li>In short, highly successful Hangul is a product of the post-War Korea of industrialists and Kpop idols, where there is as much competition from English as Chinese. JSTOR provides a contemporary summary of the language reforms from a <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-7902(194811)32:7<508:KLR>2.0.CO;2-2">paper</a> published in 1948. There are some differences in orthography between the South and the North, described in an article by Ho-Min Sohn in <i>The Korean Alphabet</i>. The broader picture of language policies in the two countries is discussed in the <i>Reunification</i> article.</li><li>Hangul is normally written in syllable blocks, consisting of an initial consonant (초성 <i>ch'osŏng</i>), a medial vowel (중성 <i>chungsŏng</i>), and a consonant coda (종성 <i>chongsŏng</i>, always drawn at the bottom and so known as 받침 <i>patch'im</i> 'platform'), taking the same square form as Chinese characters, with the size of the components being adjusted depending on the density, again as in Chinese. One of the proposals made by Chu Sigyŏng that did not take hold was writing the components uniformly in a line, a style known as 가로쓰기 <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vj8ShHzUxrYC&pg=PA162&dq=karo-ssugi&ei=BrkJR5SuIoTg6wK42pmDAg&sig=39QrEwqbXzROfdlEpz3DFo_GJKQ">karo-ssŭgi</a></i> 'horizontal writing'. An article by Ross King in <i>The Korean Alphabet</i> describes experiments with this kind of writing (also known as 횡서 <i>hoengsŏ</i> 'on-line') in Russia and the USSR.</li><li>Early Hangul was drawn with symmetrical right angles and circles. Then, as it came to be written with a brush in Chinese style, it was drawn following those conventions. As a result, in brush style, <span style="font-family:Gungsuh">ㅅ</span> is not symmetrical, <span style="font-family:Gungsuh">ㅁ</span> is clearly composed of three strokes, and <span style="font-family:Gungsuh">ㅗ</span> and <span style="font-family:Gungsuh">ㅜ</span> are not mirror images because <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke_(CJK_character)">點 <i>dian3</i></a> can be used above a line, but 豎 <i>shu4</i> is needed below.</li><li>The most common Korean keyboard layout, Dubeolsik (<a href="http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/두벌식_자판">두벌식</a> <i>tubŏlsik</i>) is also rational and efficient, with consonants on the left and vowels on the right, arranged in a featural grid.</li></ul><p>In addition to the sources linked to by the Wikipedia, there is an online <a href="http://www.hangeulmuseum.org/">Hangul Museum</a>. The English part of the site has roughly the same organization of, but not the depth of, the Korean version. The Korean version has a quirky navigation system, but contains lots of interesting pages like this <a href="http://www.hangeulmuseum.org/sub/art/shape/langtype02.jsp">one</a> with a chart showing how the letter shapes relate to the organs of speech, and <a href="http://www.hangeulmuseum.org/sub/art/shape/langtype04.jsp">another</a> with a chart showing how changes in the means of articulation at the same point are reflected in the letters. Plus, scans of early books, like this <a href="http://www.hangeulmuseum.org/new/information/bookData/detail.jsp?d_code=00218&kind=G&g_class=03">one</a> that contains part of <i>Wŏrin ch'ŏn'gang chi kok</i> showing the earlier forms of Hangul.</p><p>Hangul Day was a legal holiday from the founding of South Korean until 1991 when it was removed due to too many days off in October. There is a petition to reinstate it; see <a href="http://www.hanmalgeul.org/geulteo/zboard.php?id=deulsumnalsum&no=71">here</a> on the "InterNet HanMal and HanGeul Society" <a href="http://www.hanmalgeul.org/">site</a>.</p><p>The postscript to the <i>Haerye</i> has some amusing and extravagant claims.</p><blockquote><p>莫不該括以二十八字而轉換無窮, 簡而要, 精而通. 故智者不終朝而會, 愚者可浹旬而學. 以是解書, 可以知其義. 以是聽訟, 可以得其情. 字韻則淸濁之能辨樂歌則律呂之克諧. 無所用而不備, 無所往而不達. 雖風聲鶴戾, 鷄鳴狗吠, 皆可得而書矣. (<a href="http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/Hunminjongum/hun/p62.htm">p. 62</a>)</p><p>These twenty-eight letters are so simple and precise that the wise can master them in one morning and even the fool can learn them in ten days. With these letters, writings can be understood, legal appeals can be made, and melodies can be given verses. Indeed, there is nothing that cannot be accomplished. Even the sound of the wind, the cry of a crane, the flutter of a rooster, and the barking of a dog can all be written down. (tr. Chin W. Kim <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nonRl2cerIgC&pg=PA159&as_brr=0&ei=40kKR6GDOY6K7QKX_4CDAg&sig=kJ4sydIRC-s672ueOfMWiJD2fBM">p. 159</a>)</p></blockquote><p>I try to always include transliterations for passages quoted. But I am not sure what to do about 15th century Korean Chinese. Modern Mandarin does not seem right (even if that is what is most likely to be in one's head when reading). Nor does reconstructed Classical Chinese from China, really. For example, for the conjunction 而 in the above, the Unihan database for <a href="http://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=800C">U+800C</a> gives Mandarin <i>er2</i> and reconstructed Tang <i>*njiə</i>. The Sino-Korean reading given is <i>i</i>. When this character occurs in the annotated <i>Hunmin Chŏng'ŭm</i>, it is given as <span style="font-family:New Batang"></span> (ᅀᅵᆼ) <i>zi</i>, with one of the obsolete letters (whose pronunciation is supposed to be the strange nasalized palatal fricative [<span style="font-family:Code2000">ʝ̃</span>].) I'm open to suggestions for a practical approach; for instance, there might be searchable online versions of rime books like the <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/26563767">東國正韻</a> <i>Tongguk chŏng'un</i>.</p><p>Here is what we found wondering through the aisles. (Each of the thumbnails links to a bigger scan of the package. The captions below link to product pages.)</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/35596940@N00/1507820513/in/set-72157602308658423/"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrbzfmFKcnLQq6NPEkcn_RzAoUiCuQCpcE5Piaiiycp9F7xzq_uaP9dk8XC3LKeyWoYi1VVGxHcu0DPOtinN63lcBJ6XHZzw40rhWm0fPRlJ8KGn8Xu5LT1GTs5y1UvRvL5oTjKPXf7HA/s200/bibim-men-tn.jpg" border="0" alt="bibim-men" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118705024175054946" /></a> <div class="caption" style="text-align:center"><a href="http://food.shinsegae.com/prod/prod_detailview.jsp?uppgrid=10003&grid=10035&lowgrid=10156&prodid=100013934">비빔면</a> ― <a href="http://paldofood.com/product/pop01_1_06.asp">bibim men</a></div></div><p>I mentioned the Korean national dish 비빔밥 <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibimbap">pibimbap</a></i> briefly in another post, and how it quickly summarizes Hangul by showing the same consonant ㅂ <i>p</i> as <i>ch'osŏng</i> and <i>chongsŏng</i> and with different <i>chongsŏng</i> (ㅁ <i>m</i>) and <i>chungsŏng</i> (ㅏ<i> a</i>). 비빔면 <i>pibim myŏn</i> is kind of a simplified ramen noodle form of it: 면 <i>myŏn</i> 'noodles' instead of 밥 <i>pap</i> 'rice'. Note the difference between the <a href="http://food.shinsegae.com/prodimages/Limage/8801128503051.jpg">domestic</a> and <a href="http://www.okinami.com/products/large/bibim-noodles-1762007-lg.jpg">export</a> packages. In addition to including Chinese 韓國干撈麵 <i>han2guo2 gan4 lao1mian4</i> 'Korean dry lo-mein' and Vietnamese <i>mì khô đại hàn</i> 'Daehan (i.e., Korean) dry noodles', they use two different <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_romanization">Romanization schemes for Korean</a>. I have tried to use McCune-Reischauer consistently in this post, except for personal and brand names, since consistency is more important than the different advantages that each scheme has.</p><p>The Korean language support in Windows comes with four font families:</p><ul><li>Batang, a “serif” font like what is used in most printing: <span style="font-family:Batang">한글날</span>.</li><li>Gungsuh, which looks even more like brush writing: <span style="font-family:Gungsuh">한글날</span>.</li><li>Dotum, a “sans-serif” font with a more symmetrical, geometrical appearance: <span style="font-family:Dotum">한글날</span>.</li><li>Gulim, another geometrical font that is a bit lighter by being more vertical: <span style="font-family:Gulim">한글날</span>.</li></ul><p>Each of these also has a -Che monospace version. Notable among all the other fonts available on the net (<a href="http://cg.scs.carleton.ca/~luc/korea.html">here</a> is a good inventory) is UnYetgul in the <a href="http://kldp.net/projects/unfonts/">Un-fonts</a> project, which looks like early printing: <span style="font-family:UnYetgul">한글날</span>. (Without Korean support, all those samples may look alike; there should not be any other negative effects.)</p><p>As one might expect, our everyday grocery needs have more prosaic graphic design with everyday fonts.</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/35596940@N00/1507816375/in/set-72157602308658423/"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOX62aih9Wer_dDlhNKCC7RHhLWiDrxvOSxU5Kkhs1d_PAWeC75U_Z3PWmqyuCgQ6l8MbvOVsnHZfliNWPyWfoL1nGsQh6rtzDrkl6Iup-thn-7_uWZ9xr8v-9Vy0DwMdEYMShhRW1swc/s200/chamgireum-tn.jpg" border="0" alt="chamgireum" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118705028470022258" /></a> <div class="caption" style="text-align:center"><a href="http://www.cjshop.co.kr/shop/itemDetail.asp?ProdCode=104537">참기름</a> ― sesame oil</div></div><p>진한 참기름 <i>chinhan ch'amgirŭm</i> 'dark sesame oil'. Oddly enough, it also says that it is 백설 <i>paeksŏl</i> 'snow-white' (or 'white snow'<small>; Korean isn't alleged to have lots of words for snow that I know of</small>).</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/35596940@N00/1507816899/in/set-72157602308658423/"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3qnApGv7W5ytmmN8FolDbvlidZKLoSUA_fGpM-yu6vved_6cVVFwXHpkm6gYffWytotqOQCxxXn0YYjXfutmE6_8wE3jFf8fRb1cEY-akppfnDSzxXVImPya-UYcZBEjogMTStRPtnYI/s200/shil-gochu-tn.jpg" border="0" alt="shil-gochu" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118705299052962002" /></a> <div class="caption" style="text-align:center"><a href="http://www.asiamex.com/proddetail.cfm?CFID=447999&CFTOKEN=683248&ItemID=1205&CategoryID=23&SubCatID=31">실고추</a> ― shredded red pepper</div></div><p>실고추 <i>silgoch'u</i> is literally 'string hot pepper'. These are dried <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/04/chili-part-i.html">chili peppers</a> sliced unbelievably thin and great on noodles. 태양초 <i>t'aeyangch'o</i> 'sun candle(?)' is a traditional way of sun-drying red peppers, though I am sure a factory was involved here. This is actually a Korean-American product, under the Assi brand of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhee_Brothers_Inc.">Rhee Brothers</a>. On the back, a sticker has carefully been placed over the original package's “<span style="font-variant:small-caps">product of korea produit de coree</span>”; it says, “<span style="font-variant:small-caps">product of china produit de coree</span>.”</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/35596940@N00/1507817825/in/set-72157602308658423/"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdf6N-FNY2NkTfwL38cfABUVJdZehnDG7qhZrpHq36qCO4olP4B6uH4eaSEhMBErDMrTiCZHm5n5IAEs9eQbyb6U0w7-NcpzZHGTb9Xbrdu6QNhUJ4h6gMHf1PvI5o-eTs3SpWmV9eM8w/s200/gochujang-tn.jpg" border="0" alt="gochujang" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118705032764989586" /></a> <div class="caption" style="text-align:center"><a href="http://food.shinsegae.com/prod/prod_detailview.jsp?uppgrid=10003&grid=10028&lowgrid=10116&prodid=100016350">고추장</a> ― gochujang</div></div><p>고추장 <i>koch'ujang</i> is Korean hot bean paste, made with 태양초 <i>t'aeyangch'o</i> in fermented soy beans. I'm not 100% sure what makes this 골드 <i>goldŭ</i> (gold); perhaps how long it was fermented. We didn't need a fresh tub this time, and it looks from the 해찬들 <i>haech'andŭl</i> product <a href="https://www.haechandle.com:7012/product/goods/PdtInfo.asp?code=gcj">page</a> like the packaging has changed since then, getting rid of the simple “italic” typestyle.</p><p>With candy, the graphic design gets a bit more sophisticated.</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/35596940@N00/1508672706/in/set-72157602308658423/"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjd3oafjzNlBinAjatEEp25qrTgPtpDH6diKRHxfyXihiiyZn2g3-n4cpcrq_z8bZ2NUo0iT8rxHialFUQccp8DcotABuvEi3Sg5Gigvghn9wOHL5L5nDid2fDmrFtVPw4JOWScl83PvL0/s200/komun-kkae-caramel-tn.jpg" border="0" alt="komun-kkae-caramel" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118705294757994674" /></a> <div class="caption" style="text-align:center"><a href="http://www.melland.co.kr/products/products_view.asp?Cidx=137&Tpage=&INCOUNTIDX=137&PGSIZE=12&NPAGE=1&CATA=6&SRCHOPT=&SRCHKEYWORD=">검은깨 캬라멜</a> ― black sesame caramel</div></div><p>검은깨 캬라멜 <i>kŏmŭnkkae k'yaramel</i>, with the first part in a hand-painted brush style and the second in a geometric style.</p><p>For more aggressive design, of course one has to go with kid's snacks.</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/35596940@N00/1507815147/in/set-72157602308658423/"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgydGGBsGqiVrlcQyNBEDFbBD8hXVX23JWaMaJPczhki1rHRms6-seZq7a7gGqnpn-d8GYFK45rsP8lwbAdQEBHONFUMJJZ0Mv5m00GnhHm2aK5Npmh09wCKk31xy1Tt0WEYa2LJia3Npk/s200/o-gamja-tn.jpg" border="0" alt="o-gamja" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118705299052961986" /></a> <div class="caption" style="text-align:center"><a href="http://www.orionworld.com/Snak/Brnd/View.asp?iCodeNo=5&iSerialNo=82">오!감자</a> ― <a href="http://www.orionworld.com/ENG/Snak/Brnd/View.asp?iCodeNo=5&iSerialNo=408">Oh! Gamja</a></div></div><p>감자 <i>kamja</i> is '<a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/07/potato.html">potato</a>'. This is 오리지날 <i>orijinal</i> (original) flavor; if they had other flavors at the store, we didn't notice them.</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/35596940@N00/1507814547/in/set-72157602308658423/"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgL19r-yh1jwI8o0WkZOChAIkWvJoCXKvMY6c5DagnWRcwAIrxO7qv8tkbdi4VX5LXtBIO1UswzGeDeUef4TNXMsB3oN5odcPAEMzguGGBvwxc9Ik-7-29LLH7m3wM1tNz0VegiZVUweFk/s200/goraebab-tn.jpg" border="0" alt="goraebab" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118705294757994658" /></a> <div class="caption" style="text-align:center"><a href="http://www.orionworld.com/Snak/Brnd/View.asp?iCodeNo=1&iSerialNo=2">고래밥</a> ― <a href="http://www.orionworld.com/ENG/Snak/Brnd/View.asp?iCodeNo=1&iSerialNo=328">Goraebab</a></div></div><p>고래밥 <i>koraebap</i> 'whale rice (i.e., food)' is like Animal Crackers, but not as sweet and shaped like sea creatures rather than circus animals. This is the 매콤한맛 <i>maegomhanmat</i> 'spicy flavor'. If the web site is to be believed, these are a favorite bar snack as well as being for kids. In the translation of the jingle "♬재미로 먹고, 맛으로 먹는 오리온 고래밥~♪" <i>chaemiro mŏkko, masŭro mŏknŭn orion koraebap</i>, that they give there, "♬Orion Goraebab for Fun and for Taste~♪", it's interesting that they don't translate either of the verb forms of 먹 <i>mŏk</i> 'eat', 고 <i>-ko</i> is the gerund 'eating' and 는 <i>-nŭn</i> is (if I understand rightly) a reference to an earlier mention of the verb, so '[that] eating' or '[the one who is] eating', which actually is kind of hard to put into simple English. There is a <a href="http://www.goraebab.com/">goraebab.com</a>; it will start playing a song, which is probably very annoying to your coworkers, and even without sound it is pretty hard on the eyes, if you're over fifty like me.</p><p>The only <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanja">Hanja</a> on this package (or any of the others, as far as I can tell) is 無 <i>mu</i> 'no; none', next to 첨가 <i>ch'ŏmga</i> 'additives' and above MSG. I bet this is part of some coordinated campaign for healthier junk food. By coincidence, one of the free Korean newspapers we picked up on the same trip has a profile of the recently deceased <a href="http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/마르셀_마르소">마르셀 마르소</a> <i>marŭsel marŭso</i>, so I couldn't help but relate this lone character to the only spoken line in <i><a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0075222/">Silent Movie</a></i>, “Non.”</p><div class="image"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/35596940@N00/1508670796/in/set-72157602308658423/"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdSOVi227nCkRJ_BFhFvXadGBwnhlICeqVv5-_Haqjew-ZBUnnhPlLVx01qANtABvXAn6FmOOhfhA9OjnOJMKWo1v00xY0cbYIeB3dryaTy1fobpcb7xae6f6XBzIvzQDHX2CZkM22Vwo/s200/egoodongsung-tn.jpg" border="0" alt="egoodongsung" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118705028470022274" /></a> <div class="caption" style="text-align:center"><a href="http://www.orionworld.com/Snak/Brnd/View.asp?iCodeNo=1&iSerialNo=18">이구동성</a> ― <a href="http://www.orionworld.com/ENG/Snak/Brnd/View.asp?iCodeNo=1&iSerialNo=344">Egoodongsung</a></div></div><p>The <a href="http://www.zkorean.com/dictionary.php?direction=ke&word=%C0%CC%B1%B8%B5%BF%BC%BA%C0%B8%B7%CE">dictionary</a> says 이구동성으로 igudŭngsŏngŭro means 'with one voice'. Together with the tag line, “아니, 이게! 과자야? 피자야?” <i>ani, ige! kwajaya? p'ijaya? </i>“Is this a snack or a pizza?”, I think the idea is that those apparently contradictory statements actually agree. It also works a little better because 과자야 <i>kwajaya</i> 'confectionary' and 피자야 <i>p'ijaya</i> 'pizza' rhyme. Using the circles as pizzas is maybe going a little too far in the kiddie direction.</p><p>Another snack that we saw, but decided against ultimately because it has MSG in it, was <a href="http://food.shinsegae.com/prod/prod_detailview.jsp?uppgrid=10003&grid=10033&lowgrid=10146&prodid=100001075">꼬깔콘</a> <i>kkokkal-k'on</i>, the Korean version of Bugles, with its wobbly looking <i>patch'im</i>. But now that I'm looking around, I see that it has a cult following on English language snack <a href="http://www.taquitos.net/snacks.php?snack_code=790">sites</a>. That one says it is made by Rhee Brothers. But the package says 롯데 <i>Lotte</i> and it features prominently on the confectionary division's <a href="http://www.lotteconf.co.kr/product/snack.asp">site</a>. The name comes from <i>kkokkal</i>, the name of the traditional Korean peaked hat, and based on Google <a href="http://images.google.com/images?q=꼬깔">Image search</a>, a paper hat kids wear at parties; plus 콘 <i>k'on</i> as in 팝콘 <i>p'ap-k'on</i> (popcorn).</p><p>To get more interesting type design than at the supermarket, one needs to move to the area of conceptual corporate design and fine arts. I think the Korean avant-garde designer and typographer that is the most well known in the West (the only one I know by name) is Ahn Sang-Soo 안송수. There is a <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/3445619">book</a> about his work published in France in French and English. He features prominently in the <a href="http://www.idea-mag.com/cgi-bin/book/catalog.cgi?language=en&item=307">issue</a> of Idea Magazine (a design magazine from Japan) on Korean graphic design (which also has an article on typography in Korea in general; I need to track down my copy or find it at the library) and in European typography <a href="http://www.slanted.de/node/636">magazines</a>. Here is an <a href="http://www.maggietext.com/articles/theme/theme_issue6.pdf">interview</a> from Theme magazine. (Don't miss the picture of the gate to his house.) Of course, he also gets mentioned in English language Korean media, <a href="http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=1904881">like</a> <a href="http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2483685">this</a> <a href="http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2846963">here</a>. His design magazine 보고서/보고서 <i>pogosŏ/pogosŏ</i> 'report/report' is the only one <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/69016360">listed</a> for Korean typography in OCLC. Some images of a recent exhibition at the Rodin Gallery are <a href="http://www.rodingallery.org/rodingallery/rodin/exhibition/ahn/main3.html">online</a>, but with absolutely horrible DRM that makes navigation almost impossible. His <a href="http://www.ssahn.com/">blog</a> is mainly filled with snapshots of people he meets covering one eye. He also has a <a href="http://www.hgdada.org/">Hangul Dada</a> site. I believe the font in which 한글다다 <i>han'gŭl dada</i> is written on this <a href="http://www.hgdada.org/archives/2006/12/2006_poster.html">poster</a> is called I-Sang, in honor of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yi_Sang">writer</a>. This is kind of like <i>karo-ssŭgi</i>, except that some sense of the original placement is maintained by putting the three <i>chamo</i> at different vertical positions. But Ahn goes even further, snaking them around on non-orthogonal baselines. He has designed posters for Hangul Day. (I assume what one usually sees is like these <a href="http://search.kll.co.kr:8082/up_book/2615_nf/0.jpg">booklet</a> <a href="http://search.kll.co.kr:8082/up_book/2647_nf/0.jpg">covers</a>.) One is illustrated in the Theme article. Another, the 한글 만다라 <i>han'gŭl mandara</i> (mandala), is <a href="http://www.rodingallery.org/rodingallery/rodin/exhibition/ahn/sub3_3.html">here</a> (or just the <a href="http://www.rodingallery.org/rodingallery/rodin/exhibition/ahn/images/sub3_3.gif">image</a> if the DRM gets in the way).</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6755950306920485021.post-75027801538889294022007-09-23T15:33:00.000-05:002007-11-04T11:49:14.357-05:00Kookoo<p><small>Some of the spare time allocated for posting here got used last month for <a href="http://www.languagehat.com/archives/002837.php">gazpacho</a> and <a href="http://www.languagehat.com/archives/002843.php">shark</a> over at LH.</small></p><p>There used to be a falafel place in Brookline Village called King Tut (with just a bit of the cheesy decor that name implies). We didn't eat there much, since it was pretty much weekday lunch only. Not too long ago, the people who run the yoga studio nearby bought the place out and made it over into more of a coffee shop, redoing the interior to add some tables and extending the hours to Saturdays. They still have falafel, but they also added a signature dish from the new owner Ali's native Iran, kookoo sabzi. Kookoo also lends its name to the new <a href="http://www.kookoocafe.com/">café</a>.</p><div class="post-summary"><a href="/2007/09/kookoo.html#rest">Read More</a></div><div class="post-full"><a name="rest"></a><p>Kookoo (کوکو <i>kūkū</i>) is a thick filled omelet, cut into squares, along the lines of Italian <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frittata">frittata</a> or Spanish (not Mexican) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tortilla_de_patatas">tortilla</a>. It is also compared to quiche or souffle, although the filling is more important and there isn't as much air. John Fryer, in <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/12068380&ht=edition">A New Account of East India and Persia … 1672-1681</a></i> (published in 1698), writes (Letter V, Chap. XIV: <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:53433:222">EEBO</a>; reprint <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=uGBU3bSQHIAC&pg=PA148&dq=cookoo&as_brr=3&sig=Q4vpSHfHwTQYNJM-FAnXTcWoQhc">preview</a>):</p><blockquote>They have a Diſh they call <i>Cookoo Challow</i>, which is dry Rice and a Fritter of Eggs, Herbs, and Fiſhes.</blockquote><p>That is, کوکو چلاو (<i>kūkū čalāv</i>). The two main kinds of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polow">rice</a> in Persian cuisine are chelow (<a href="http://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/چلو">چلو</a> < older چلاو <i>čalāv</i>), plain boiled rice, and polow (<a href="http://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/پلو">پلو</a> < older پیلاو <i>pīlāv</i>), rice with something (usually meat) already mixed in. There is also kateh (<a href="http://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/کته">کته</a>), sticky rice. The first two correspond to challow and pallow, the two kinds of rice in Afghani cuisine. And through Turkish <i>pilav</i>, English gets <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilaf">pilaf</a></i>.</p><p>Kookoo sabzi (کوکو سبزی <i>kūkū sabzi</i>) is a kookoo of greens. It is traditionally made with ones like scallions (پیازچه <i>piyāzača</i>), parsley (جعفری <i>jaʿfarī</i>), coriander (گشنیز <i>gašnīz</i>) and dill (شبت <i>šibit</i>); there are lots of recipes online in <a href="http://www.persia.org/Recipes/kookoo.html">Engl</a><a href="http://personal.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/F.Mokhtarian/recipes/kookoo-sabzi.html">ish</a> and <a href="http://www.iranmania.com/norooz/Recipes_farsi.asp#سبزی پلو">Pers</a><a href="http://www.shamimnet.com/webpages/News/newstest/newmagalat2.asp?codma=13039&piclogo=">ian</a> (and <a href="http://veganeatsandtreats.blogspot.com/2007/03/norooz-mobarak-vegan-iranian-feast.html">vegan</a> <a href="http://wherestherevolution.blogspot.com/2007/04/new-year-end-up-round-up.html">versions</a> using tofu for eggs). It is one of the dishes served at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nowruz">Nowruz</a> Iranian New Year feast mentioned in the <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/03/garlic.html">garlic</a> post. You can even buy a <a href="http://sadaf.com/store/product133.html">mix</a> in a can.</p><p>The Kookoo Sabzee (to use their spelling) at Kookoo Cafe is predominantly spinach, still with a bit of parsley and coriander, plus the expected seasoning with fenugreek (شنبلیله <i>šambalīla</i>) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berberis">barberries</a> (زرشک <i>zerešk</i>). So it is perhaps a cross with a recipe like the <span style="font-variant:small-caps">kukuye esfanaj</span> in Jane Grigson's classic <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/96862">Vegetable Book</a></i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Nr2Dna7hx1EC&pg=PA471&dq=kuku&sig=FDvQ48all6470eZ3d_93OjgGgZo">preview</a>) or the کوکو اسفناج <i>kūkū isfināj </i>on this <a href="http://www.shindokht.com/Food/2007/02/post_11.html">page</a>. (To be absolutely clear, it is very good and I am not questioning the authenticity. I am not much persuaded by arguments on authenticity anyway. 1. Vegetarian adaptation often requires some changes. 2. With the possible exception of French cuisine, there are no canons. Such arguments tend to ignore the variability that exists within the authentic time / region. Furthermore, even if the food at <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/01/mary-chungs.html">Mary Chung</a> does not correspond to that of any restaurant in Szechwan, it is no more different from them than they are from one another. 3. Globalization means everything is fusion these days. I am a fan of the Indian version of Chinese food, which used to only be available here in New England in aseptic packaged form — Indian bachelor chow, but now has shown up at some local restaurants — perhaps a subject for another post.)</p><p>Spinach appears to have originated in the Iran / Afghanistan part of Asia. I have not seen a clear statement of how the cultivated and wild <i><a href="http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Spinacia.html">Spinacia</a></i> species are related. De Candolle says (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=g_gCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA98&vq=spinach">English</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=VhYAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA78&vq=epinard">French</a>) that a <i>S. tetandra</i> is known in Persian as <i>schamum</i>, citing Boissier's <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/6547822">Flora Orientalis</a></i>, but the sixth supplemental volume, which is the only one <i>not</i> in Google Books; this is perhaps Steingass' <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:362.steingass">شومين</a> <i>shūmīn</i>. Spinach is botanically interesting because even though it is basically dioecious, populations consistently contain monoecious plants; or, in tabloid terms, it has <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-9122(198507)72:7<1061:SSCISO>2.0.CO;2-U">three sexes</a>.</p><p>The word <i>spinach</i> (and the older form <i>spinage</i>, which represents how the final part tended to get voiced, as it still does) comes from Old French <i>espinache</i> from Medieval Latin <i>spinarchia</i> / <i>spināchium</i>. It is clearly the same as Arabic اسبانخ <i>isbānaḫ</i> / اسفاناخ <i>isfānāḫ</i> / اسفانخ <i>isfānaḫ</i> / سبانخ <i>sabānaḫ</i> / <i>sabāniḫ</i> from Persian اسفناج <i>isfanāj</i> / سپاناج <i>sipānāj</i> / سپاناخ <i>sipānāx</i> (whence also Turkish <i><a href="http://nisanyan.com/sozluk/search.asp?w=%C4%B1spanak&x=25&y=9">ıspanak</a></i>). The various forms are spread out in time and space, though I have not seen a clear description of how. They also additionally cover the space of related vegetables like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atriplex">orach</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goosefoot">goosefoot</a>, as do some of the European forms. (Suggestions welcome on a source of a clearer layout of the correspondences. This is the area where lexicography is always a bit weak.)</p><p>A number of sources say that the Persian derives from <i>ispanai</i> meaning 'green hand'. For example, this <a href="http://www.uga.edu/vegetable/spinach.html">page</a>. I have no cause to doubt this, though none of them seem to give references. This <a href="http://www.upress.uni-kassel.de/online/frei/978-3-89958-176-8.volltext.frei.pdf">book</a> is by an Iranian and based on research in Iran, so perhaps that is the current theory there and yet to make it into (non-botanical) works in English.</p><p>I think it is generally accepted that the Latin comes from the Arabic and so from Persian. That is the simple situation laid out by the <a href="http://www.bartleby.com/61/5/S0640500.html">AHD</a>. OED1 had a note on other possibilities and the associated difficulties, which is carried over into OED2 and so still appears <a href="http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/crossref?query_type=word&queryword=spinach&first=1&max_to_show=10&sort_type=alpha&result_place=3&xrefword=spinach&ps=n.&homonym_no=1">online</a> until they get to the <i>sp</i>'s in a few years.</p><blockquote>[ad. OF. <i>espinage</i>, (<i>e</i>)<i>spinache</i> (also <i>-ace</i>), = Catal. <i>espinach</i>, Sp. <i>espinaca</i>, It. <i>spinace</i>, Roum. <i>spenac</i>, med.L. <i>spinachia</i> (<i>-achium</i>), <i>spinacia</i> (<i>-acium</i>), of doubtful origin. Cf. MDu. <i>spinage</i>, <i>-agie</i>, <i>-aetse</i> (Du. <i>spinazie</i>, Flem. <i>spinagie</i>), LG. <i>spinase</i>, <i>-axe</i>, obs. G. <i>spinacie</i>, <i>-asche</i>, G. dial. <i>spinaz</i>, MHG. and G. <i>spinat</i> (whence Da. <i>spinat</i>, Sw. <i>spenat</i>).<br> <small>The difficult problem of the ultimate origin of the word is complicated by variation of the ending in the Romanic languages. In addition to <i>espinache</i>, <i>-age</i>, OF. had also <i>espinoche</i> (still in dial. use), <i>-oce</i>, = med.L. <i>spinochia</i>, and <i>espinarde</i>, <i>espinar</i> (F. <i>épinard</i>), = Prov. <i>espinarc</i>, med.L. <i>spinarium</i>, <i>-argium</i>. Pg. exhibits the further variant <i>espinafre</i>. By older writers the stem of these forms was supposed to be L. <i><nobr>spīna</nobr></i>, in allusion to the prickly seeds of a common species. De Vic considers the various forms to be adoption of Arab <i><nobr>isfināj</nobr></i>, Pers. <i><nobr>isfānāj</nobr></i>, <i><nobr>ispānāk</nobr></i>, <i><nobr>aspanākh</nobr></i> (Richardson), but it is doubtful whether these are really native words. It is difficult to explain either the Romanic or the Oriental forms from the synonymous <i>Hispanicum olus</i> recorded from the 16th cent. and represented by older F. <i>herbe d'Espaigne</i> (Cotgrave).</small>]</blockquote><p>The 1893 edition of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_W._Skeat">Skeat</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/3793927&ht=edition">Etymological Dictionary</a></i> gives particular insight into the process, which is lost in the sanitized entry in the modern <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/790375">edition</a>. Page <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OHkKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA581&vq=spinach">581</a> of the main work has the <i>spīna</i> derivation, with the printer just finding room to slip in “But see Addenda. [*]” There, on page <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OHkKAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA829&vq=spinach">829</a>, he goes over to the Persia via Arabic theory. He was persuaded by “a remarkable article in Devic, Supp. to Littré, p. 33, s.v. <i>épinard</i>.” In the online <a href="http://francois.gannaz.free.fr/Littre/xmlittre.php?requete=epinard&submit=Rechercher">XMLittré</a>, it refers to Devic's “Dict. étym.” And fortunately his <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/5658611">Dictionnaire étymologique des mots français d'origine orientale</a></i> is in Google Books where we can see the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=4X0CAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA110&vq=epinard">article</a>. He observes that spinach was not known to the ancients, and points to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Bauhin">Jean Bauhin</a> (brother of Gaspard, who was quoted in the <a href="http://polyglotveg.blogspot.com/2007/07/potato.html">potato</a> post), whose <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/7299729">Historiae plantarum universalis</a></i> says (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k98006t/f983.notice">Book II, pg. 964</a>):</p><blockquote>Quibus hæc vocabula diſplicent, Atriplicem Hiſpanienſem vocant, Mauritani <i>Hiſpanach</i>, id eſt, Hiſpanicum olus, fortaſſe quòd inde primum duxerit origem, ad cæteras tandem nationes tranſlatum<p>Those whom these words [<i>Spinacia</i>, etc.] displease, call it Spanish orach, <i>hispanach</i> to the Moors, that is, the Spanish herb, perhaps because they consider its first origin from there, in the end carried to the rest of the nations</p></blockquote><p>He then points to a passage in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Razi">Razi</a> from the end of the 9th century (significantly before it shows up in European works) and quotes it in a delightful footnote:</p><blockquote>Voici le passage, pour faire plaisir aux amateurs d'épinards: الاسفاناخ ‏معتدل جيد للحلق والرية والمعدة والكبد يليّن البطن وغذاوه جيد جيدا «Les épinards sont <i>tempéré</i>, bons pour la gorge, le poumon, l'estomac et le foie; ils adoucissent le ventre et constituent un excellent aliment.»<p>Here is the passage, to please spinach lovers: <i>al-isfānāḫ muʿtadil ǧayyid lil-ḥalqi waʾl-rriyyati waʾl-maʿidati waʾl-kabidi yulayyin al-baṭna wa-ġaḏāwah ǧayyid ǧayyida</i> “Spinach is temperate, good for the throat, the lungs, the stomach and the liver; it sweetens the belly and is a good, beneficial food.”</p></blockquote><p>A somewhat similar sentiment is expressed in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Tryon">Thomas Tryon</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/14561039">Wisdom's Dictates</a></i> (1691), a shorter version of <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/55798409">The Way of Health</a></i>, an early English treatise on vegetarianism, to which he added a list of “recipes,” making it almost able to claim to be an early English vegetarian cookbook, though it is really more like a meal planner. For spinach, he says (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:102588:76">p. 144-145</a>; <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:36789:73">p. 134-135</a> of the 1696 edition, which also corrects various printer's errors):</p><blockquote><p>23. Spinnage boiled, or ſtewed, and buttered and eaten with Bread, makes a brave cleanſing Food, eaſie of Concoction, and generates good Blood, and ſweetens the Humors, moves and opens Obſtructions.</p><p>24. Spinnage, and the young buds of Colworts boiled in plenty of good Water, with a quick briſk Fire, and eaten only with Bread, Butter and Salt, is fine pleaſant delightful Food, affording a good clean nouriſhment.</p><p>25. Spinnage boiled with the ſound tops of Mint and Balm, ſeaſoned with Salt and Butter, and eaten with Bread, makes a Noble Diſh, of a warming Quality, and gives great ſatiſfaction to the ſtomach, affording an excellent nouriſhment.</p><p>26. Spinnage, Endive, and young Parſley, boiled and eaten with Bread, Butter, and Salt, is a brave friendly exhilerating Food, generating good Blood, and fine briſk Spirits, cleanſeth the Paſſages, and looſens the Belly.</p></blockquote><p>This is not much different from a modern advocate promoting that spinach has iron and vitamins or even more modern that it has calcium and fiber.</p><p>On the other hand, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Elyot">Thomas Elyot</a>, in his 1539 <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/61365946">The Castel of Helth</a></i>, discussing “a diete preſeruatiue in the tyme of peſtilence,” does not recommend leafy vegetables (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:9656:95">p. 87</a>):</p><blockquote>Cheſe very fatte and ſalt is not commended no more is colewortes or any kinde of pulſe excepte chittes: greate peaſon rapes nor ſpynaches is good. Alſo there be forboden rokat and muſtard …</blockquote><p>Sometimes food writing repeats the same few interesting facts. There is nothing inherently wrong with this, but the details can get rubbed off with all that handling. An example is that the Arabs (sometimes, specifically, Ibn al-Awam) called spinach, “the prince of vegetables.” Alton Brown (or his researchers and writers) even put this in a recent episode of <i>Good Eats</i>, “<a href="http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/show_ea/episode/0,1976,FOOD_9956_50422,00.html">American Classic I: Spinach Salad</a>.” This particular salad has bacon in it; I have to say that sometimes I do not get TV foodies and bacon. On the recent <i>No Reservations</i> episode where he was hosted around Cleveland by Harvey Pekar, including a visit to the impressive <a href="http://www.zubalbooks.com/">Zubal Books</a> (online in <a href="http://travel.discovery.com/tv/bourdain/comic-book/cleveland-no-reservations.html">comic</a> form), Anthony Bourdain could not keep from making some wise crack about tempting vegetarian Pekar with bacon. And on the quirky show with Dweezil Zappa, Lisa Loeb used to declare herself a vegetarian, except that she ate bacon. Now anyone is free to define their own rules, but that seems particularly strange. I did not find myself entirely persuaded by the <i>Good Eats</i> theory that the American spinach salad originates with the Pennsylvania Dutch substituting spinach for dandelion greens in a traditional German salad. For one thing, spinach has been an on-again off-again participant in salads since it was first introduced. For example, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Evelyn">John Evelyn</a>'s 1699 <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/13254699">Acetaria, a Discourse of Sallets</a></i> (list in <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:citation:13254699">EEBO</a>, but not scanned; fortunately transcribed on <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15517">gutenberg.org</a>), says:</p><blockquote><i>Spinachia</i>: of old not us'd in <i>Sallets</i>, and the oftner kept out the better</blockquote><p><a href="http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=532#Ibn_Al-Awwam">Abu Zakariya Yahya ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn al-'Awwam al-Ishbili</a> أبو زكريا يحيى بن محمد بن أحمد بن العوام الإشبيلي lived in Moorish Spain (Ishbili is Seville) at the end of the 12th century and wrote a treatise on agriculture, كتاب الفلاحة <i>Kitab al-filaha</i>, that is one of the earliest surviving works to describe spinach in detail. The bilingual edition with the Arabic text and a Spanish translation by J. A. Banqueri from 1802, <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/6913786">Libro de Agricultura, su autor el Doctor excelente Abu Zacaria Iahia</a></i>, is surprisingly hard to find, even though there have been reprints as recently as last year. (<small>I am almost tempted to just buy an HCL card, but they are insanely expensive for non-affiliated people.</small>) Fortunately, a reprint of the 1864-67 French translation by J. J. Clement-Mullet, <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/6985613">Le Livre de l'Agriculture d'Ibn al-Awam</a></i>, is at the BPL and armed with that, one can get the right <a href="http://books.google.com/books?ei=Jc_eRv-YOqHC7ALntPngBg&as_brr=0&id=eYQCAAAAMAAJ&dq=intitle:Livre+intitle:de+intitle:l'Agriculture&q=epinard+"des+l%C3%A9gumes"&pgis=1#search">snippet</a> in Google Books. The translator has fortunately chosen to include the key phrase in the original. What ibn al-Awam says is that, “according to Abul Khair [of Seville] and others, spinach is called رِيس البقول <i>raīs </i>[i.e., رئيس <i>raʾīs</i>]<i> al-buqūl</i> 'prince of green vegetables'.” He then goes on to mention an entire work on spinach by Ibn Haddjāj, which I believe is lost. Now بقل <i>baql</i> is 'herb' or 'legume' and not every kind of vegetables. Lane (<a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000273.pdf">p. 236</a>) quotes a definition as herbs or plants that grow from seed but not on a permanent root, which lets in cucumber. Spinach's principality is somewhat smaller than usually suggested in English.</p><p>Another early Arab work that is frequently referred to is <i>Kitab-al-Jāmiʻ li-mufradāt al-adwiyah wa-al-aghdhiyah </i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/15376480">كتاب الجامع لمفردات الأدويةة والأغذي</a> by <a href="http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=525">Ḍiya’ al-Dīn abū Muḥammad ‘Abd Allāh ibn Aḥmad ibn al-Bayṭār</a> ضياء الدين ابو محمد عبد الله ابن احمد المعروف بابن البيطار, translated by Lucien Leclerc as <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/22417170">Traité des simples</a></i>, originally issued in three parts in the <i>Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Nationale</i>, XXIII (1877), XXV (1881), XXVI (1883). But frustratingly, Google Books only has the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=sKcAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0Stt0n5Crf6FW_plRzPY1a#PPP15,M1">third volume</a>, not the one with spinach. This work is notable for the unsubstantiated claim that spinach was known in Nineveh and Babylon. This type of book is an extension of the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a>, who of course did not know about spinach. So information about it was added by Arab scientists. And these works were translated into European languages just as spinach was becoming known there. For example, Yaḥia ibn Sarāfiyūn يحيى بن سرافيون, known in Europe as Johannes Serapion, not to be confused with the geographer Yūḥannā ibn Sarābiyūn يوحنا بن سرابيون, known the same way, in <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/31643364">Liber aggregatus in medicinis simplicibus</a></i> (1473) (s.v. <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58568x/f132.notice">spinachia</a>) says that it is <i>fri[gi]da</i> 'cold' and <i>hu[m]ida</i> 'moist' and good for the chest and lungs.</p><p>The most famous of these authors is Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā أبو علي الحسين بن عبد الله بن سينا, known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna">Avicenna</a>. His <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a></i> was published in many editions in many languages, a number of which are online. For example, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k586299/f239.notice">cap. dciii</a> of a 1483 Latin edition and <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k592132/f331.notice">cap. 604</a> of a 1555 one, which agree that spinach is <i>fridiga</i> and <i>humida</i> There is even a online scan of an edition of <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/40695103">Kutub ʼal-qānūn fī ʼal-ṭibb</a></i> كتب القانون في الطّب printed in Arabic in Rome in 1593. It says (<a href="http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/640/html/S1_136.html">p. 136</a>):</p><blockquote><p><div align="center" style="font-size:larger">اسفاناخ</div><div dir="rtl">✠ الماهية ✠ معروف ✠ الطبع ✠ بارد رطب في اخر الاولى ✠ الافعال والخواص ✠ ملين وغذاوه اجود من غذا السرمق اقول وفيه قوة جالية غسالة ويقمع الصفرا وربما نفرت المعدة عن ورقه فيروق ويوكل ✠ اعضا النفس والصدر ✠ نافع من الصدر والرية الحارة اكلا وطلا ✠ الات المفاصل ✠ ينفع اوجاع الظهر الدموية ✠ اعضا النفض ✠ ملين للبطن</div></p><p> <div align="center" style="font-size:larger"><i>isfānāḫ</i></div><div><i>: al-māhīyah : maʿrūf : al-ttabʿ : bārid raṭb fī ʾāḫiri al-ūlā : al-afʿāl waʾl-ḫawāṣṣ : mulayyin wa-ġiḏāʾuh ʾaǧwad min ġiḏāʾi al-sarmaqi ʾaqūl wa-fī-hi qūwah ǧālīah ġassālati wa-yaqmaʿ al-ṣṣafrāʾa wa-rubbamā nafarat al-miʿdah min waraqi-hi fayurawwiq wa-yūʾkal : ʾaʿḍāʾ al-nnafasi waʾl-ṣṣadri : nāfiʿ min al-ṣṣadri waʾl-rrīʾati al-ḥārrati ʾaklʾa wa-ṭilāʾa : ʾālāt al-mafāṣili : yunaffiʿ ʾawǧāʿ al-ẓẓahri al-ddamawīata : ʾaʿḍāʾ al-nnafaḍi : mulayyan lil-boṭṭni</i></div></p><p><div align="center" style="font-size:larger">spinach</div><div><ul><li>nature: well-known.</li><li>temperament: cold and moist in the first degree.</li><li>actions and properties: laxative and its food is better than orach's food, I say; and in it there is clearing power for cleansing and it prevents cholera; and perhaps the stomach is adverse to its leaves, so that it purifies as it is eaten.</li><li>breathing organs and the chest: useful against chest and lung fever both eaten and as a compress.</li><li>joint apparatus: back pains can use the [increased] blood.</li><li>digestive organs: laxative for the stomach.</li></ul></div></p></blockquote><p><a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Agricola_Gunzenhausen">Johann “Ammonius” Agricola</a>, a Bavarian doctor, in his 1539 <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/14328515">Medicinae herbariae libri dvo</a></i>, says (<a href="http://alfama.sim.ucm.es/dioscorides/foldertree/img_libro.asp?ref=X531468134&cnv_lib=1819&cnv_pos=322">p. 323</a>) that spinach is not the same as <i>blitum</i> 'orach', but rather recently discovered, and references specific passages in both Avicenna and Serapion. Here, as elsewhere, Spinach was gaining popularity as much as a medicinal herb as a food.</p><p>Waverly Root's valuable <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/176559">Food</a></i> squeezes a broad range of spinach history into a few columns, with perhaps just a little too much discussion of the relative merits of smooth- and prickly-seeded varieties. Unfortunately, when more detail is wanted, the format of his book does not lend itself to footnotes and the bibliography is mostly just other secondary works. Thankfully, some of these sources give fuller references, in particular, Sturtevant's series “The History of Garden Vegetables” in <i>The American Naturalist</i> (all of the installments are in <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0147(189008)24:284<719:THOGV(>2.0.CO;2-">JSTOR</a>) and the posthumous <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/819885">Sturtevant's Edible Plants of the World</a></i> (also <a href="http://www.swsbm.com/Ephemera/Sturtevants_Edible_Plants.pdf">online</a>), though the footnotes tend to be of the older, inconsistently abbreviated, sort. (There are <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/98541">whole</a> <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/57022">books</a> on the history of footnotes. Mostly, one can manage without them in a blog, using parentheses and hyperlinks.)</p><p>When Root writes, “Ruellius, in 1536, gave the impression that it was then new in France,” it is easy enough to find <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Ruel">Jean Ruel</a> <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/14326318">De natura stirpium libri tres</a></i> (1536), which says (Lib. II Cap. LIII, Atriplex, <a href="http://fondosdigitales.us.es/books/digitalbook_view?oid_page=362547">p. 359</a>):</p><blockquote>quod recentiores Græci ſpanachia nominant, uulgus <i>ſpinacia</i>, ueteribus (quod magnopere demiror) incognitum<p>which more recent Greeks call <i>spanachia</i>, the common <i>spinacia</i>, unknown to the older ones (which I very much wonder at)</p></blockquote><p>Likewise that Matthiola said it was new to Italy in the 16th century. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Andrea_Mattioli">Pietro Andrea Mattioli</a> <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/8230496">Commentarii, in libros sex Pedacii Dioscoridis Anazarbei</a></i> (1554), says (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58820r/f298.notice">p. 246</a>):</p><blockquote>Credidere recentiorum quidam Atriplicem, & Spinaciam uulgò dictam, eiuſdem eſſe generis. Verùm ij, meo quidem iudicio, falluntur apertißimè. quippe præter id, quòd Spinacia nouum in Italia olus eſt, & foliorum, & caulis, & ſeminis forma, atque colore ab atriplice maximè differt, ſicuti et ſapore.<p>Some of those who are younger believed orach and what is commonly called spinach to be of the same genus. But, in my judgment, these quite obviously lack truth. In fact, besides that, because spinach is a new herb in Italy, and the shape of the leaves and the stem and the seeds and the color differ from orach a lot, and likewise the taste.</p></blockquote><p>But Crescenzi had already written in the 13th century that it was better than orach and sowed in the autumn. There are a number of incunabula editions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Crescenzi">Pietro Crescenzi</a>'s <i>Ruralia commoda</i> online: <a href="http://diglib.hab.de/inkunabeln/5-oec-2f/start.htm?image=00190">without pictures</a> or <a href="http://diglib.hab.de/inkunabeln/5-2-oec-2f/start.htm?image=00203">with</a>. Gallica has an Italian <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k585756/f183.notice">translation</a>, whose <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k585756/f4.notice">title</a> has a woodcut of Crescenzi and his patron <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_II_of_Naples">Charles</a> (why this matters in a minute). From the Latin:</p><blockquote>Spinacia optime ſerunt de menſe ſeptembris et octobris … et meliora ſunt ſtomacho quam atripices.<p>Spinach is best sown in the months of September and October … and they are better for the stomach than that orach.</p></blockquote><p>And the <i>Ménagier de Paris</i> says that a species of chard called <i>espinoches</i> was eaten at the beginning of Lent. From the 19th century edition that is online (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k831118/f143.notice">p. 141</a>):</p><blockquote>Une espèce de porée, que l'en dit espinars et ont plus longues feuilles, plus gresles et plus vers que porée commune, et aussi l'en appelle espinoches, et se menguent au commencement de karesme.<p>A species of chard, which is called <i>espinars</i> and which has leaves that are longer, skinnier and greener than regular chard, and which is also called <i>espinoches</i>, is eaten at the beginning of Lent.</p></blockquote><p>Trickier is that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertus_Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a> described the plant with prickly seeds. But Sturtevant gives a page reference to the [Meyer and] Jessen edition that happens to be in Google Books; plus it has a full-text index. (Long before such amazing tools, Laufer — see below — faults <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/5740664">Schrader</a> for failing to give a specific reference to where Albertus Magnus uses <i>spinachium</i>.) <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/18478363">De Vegetabilibus Libri VII</a></i> has (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=euAHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA563&vq=spinachia">p. 563</a>):</p><blockquote>Spinachia vocantur folia herbae, quae est sicut borago, nisi quod est spinosa. Et est semen eius valde spinosum, et flos eius sicut plantaginis. Et est frigida and humida.<p><i>Spinachia</i> is what the leaves are called, of a plant which is like borage, except that it is spiny. And its seed is exceedingly spiny and its flower is like a plantain's. It is cold and moist.</p></blockquote><p>Root just says that spinach appears on a 1351 list of vegetables for monks on fast days. For this, Sturtevant says, “According to Beckman.” Well, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Beckmann">Johann Beckmann</a>, in his <i>Beytræge zur Geschichte der Erfindungen</i> does have a chapter on kitchen vegetables, where (<a href="http://dz-srv1.sub.uni-goettingen.de/sub/digbib/loader?ht=VIEW&did=D152233&p=124">p. 116</a>) the relevant footnote on says, “Du Cange.” (The English translation, <i>A History of Inventions, Discoveries, and Origins</i>, is also in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eCQFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA340&vq=spinage">Google Books</a>. Beckmann also says that Johannes van Meurs' <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/38613137">Glossarium graeco-barbarum</a></i> found a medieval use of σπινάκιον in a poem that he often named but didn't sufficiently report; this dictionary isn't online or easily accessible that I know of.) There are later editions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Du_Fresne_Du_Cange">Charles Du Fresne Du Cange</a>'s <i>Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis</i> in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2_UtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA555&dq=spinargium">Google Books</a> and <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k515656/f560.notice">Gallica</a>, where s.v. <i>spinargium</i>, he lists:</p><blockquote>Transactio inter Abbatem et Monachos Crassenses ann. 1351. ex lib. viridi fol. 53: <i>Debet dare dictus hortulanus quotidie conventui… de herbis domesticis horti, aliquando de bonis, aliquando de aliis, sicut sunt caules, Spinargia, porri, etc.</i><p>Transaction between the abbot and monks of La Crasse in 1351 from the green book folio 53: The said gardener must give to the monastery daily<i>…</i> from the cultivated herbs of the garden, now from the good ones, now from the others, thus they are cabbage, spinach, leeks, etc.</p></blockquote><p>Particularly troublesome is that, “Arnauld de Villeneuve had listed it among common foods in the thirteenth century.” The problem is that over the years lots of works have been ascribed to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnaldus_de_Villa_Nova">Arnaldus de Villa Nova</a> (there is a 19th century bibliographic <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=lwgIAAAAIAAJ">study</a> in Google Books). Gallica has many editions of his annotated version of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regimen_sanitatis_Salernitanum"><i>Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum</i></a>; he does expand on some of the foods listed in the verses, but does not, so far as I know, mention spinach. On the other hand, the similarly named <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/14318720">Regimen sanitatis Magnimi</a></i>, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k53982c/f194.notice">does</a>:</p><blockquote>Spinargie ſimiles ſunt attriplicibus niſi q[uod] meliores ſunt ſtomacho:<p>Spinach is similar to orach, except that it is better for the stomach:</p></blockquote><p>In that printing, it is ascribed to Maino de Maineri, that is Magninus Mediolanensis, another fourteenth century physician. But essentially the identical work is included in Arnaldus' <i>Opera</i>, <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k54345r/f139.notice">prefaced</a> with:</p><blockquote>Incipit liber de regimine ſanitatis Arnaldi de villa noua que[m] Magninus mediolanenſis ſibi appropriauit addendo & imutando nonnulla.<p>Here begins the health regimen book of Arnaldus de Villa Nova which Magninus Mediolanensis appropriated for himself with some additions and changes.</p></blockquote><p>So that same spinach description occurs in the 1504 <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k54345r/f162.notice">edition</a>. And translations are also often ascribed to Arnaldus. For example, an Italian <i>Opera utilissima di Arnaldo di Villanuova di conservare la sanita</i>, also in <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k60409d/f143.notice">Gallica</a>. Lynn Thorndike believed that Maino was the true author (see his study of another work of his in <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0038-7134(193404)9:2<183:AMS>2.0.CO;2-D">JSTOR</a>).</p><p>Arnaldus' name is associated with a series of early herbals, beginning with the 1491 <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/53351599&ht=edition">Tractatus de virtutibus herbarum</a></i>. These are illustrated by quaint, somewhat primitive, woodcuts, with text repeating <i>Materia Medica</i> like Avicenna's: spinach (“fridiga & humida”) appears in <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k59218s/f252.notice">Chap. CXXIII</a>, Most of the woodcuts for this herbal are from the 1484 <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/29580013">Latin Herbarius</a>: compare its <a href="http://www.illustratedgarden.org/mobot/rarebooks/page.asp?relation=R1286043&identifier=0253">Chap. cxxiij</a>. The cause of the confusion is the <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k59218s/f2.notice">title page</a>: the printer has taken the aforementioned woodcut of Crescenzi and Charles II (15th century clip art) and labeled it as Arnaldus de Nova Villa and Avicenna, leading some to believe that Arnaldus was the author. In subsequent editions, the woodcut was removed but the names remained, even furthering the confusion. A nice-looking, not quite incunabula, 1502 edition is available <a href="http://sokolbooks.weblodge.net/product_info.php/pName/herbarius-latinus-incipit-tractatus-de-virtutibus-herbarum/cName/books">for sale</a> (or to drool over) online. This same edition was one of the source for this <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0040-0262(199805)47:2<305:IOPNIA>2.0.CO;2-">study</a> of medieval plant names, with the authors labeling that dataset Arnoldo.</p><p>Arnaldus is also of interest to this blog because he wrote <i>De esu carnium</i>, an early defense of a meatless Christian diet and specifically of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthusian">Carthusians</a> (in French, Chartreux, whence Chartreuse the liqueur and so the color), whose austerity (even the sick abstained) was being attacked by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Order">Dominicans</a> on theological grounds. The general environment is discussed from a religious studies point of view by Diane Bazell in this <a href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7189(199721)65:1<73:SATTCA>2.0.CO;2-X">paper</a>, where Arnaldus' work only gets an oblique mention in a footnote. It was the focus of her <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/25113282">thesis</a>, which analyses the manuscripts, gives the text and English translation, and covers the history, which does much to fill in the gap between the Pythagoreans and the Renaissance in most histories of vegetarianism; she then edited the critical text as v. 11 of <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/2964918">Arnaldi de Villanova Opera medica omnia</a></i>. Arnaldus' work first appeared in his <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/27893500">Opera</a></i> in the edition of 1520, where it is available <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k543432/f654.notice">online</a>.</p><p>Two related facts from China are often included in summaries of spinach history: that the earliest recorded mention of spinach is from China and that spinach is called 'Persian vegetable' in Chinese. Grigson leads off her spinach section with a fuller version of the story. But there are complexities even beyond what she can fit in.</p><p>It is easy to find various Chinese names for (types of) spinach. The Wikipedia for <a href="http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/菠菜">菠菜</a> <i>bo1cai4</i> includes 菠柃 <i>bo1ling2</i>,鹦鹉菜 (traditional 鸚鵡) <i>ying1 wu3 cai4</i> 'parrot vegetable' ,红根菜 (trad. 紅) <i>hong2 gen1 cai4</i> 'red root vegetable' and 飛龍菜 (simplified 飞龙菜) <i>fei1 long2 cai4</i> 'flying dragon vegetable'. It then goes on to say that it came to China from Persia in 647 and in the old days was called 波斯菜 <i>bo1 si1 cai4</i> 'Persian vegetable', which of course is an oversimplification. Similar names include 赤根菜 <i>chi4 gen1 cai4</i> again 'red root vegetable', 珊瑚菜 <i>shan1hu2 cai4</i> 'coral vegetable', 波斯草 <i>bo1 si1 cao3</i> 'Persian herb' and 波稜 <i>bo1leng2</i>. The 純陽呂真人藥石製 <i>Chun2yang2 Lü3 Zhen1jen2 Yao4 Shi2 zhi4</i> 'Pharmaceutical Manual of the Adept Lü Chun-Yang', which lists elixir plants, all of which are some kind of 龍芽 <i>long2 ya2</i> 'dragon sprout', has spinach as <a href="http://www.jnk.org.tw/wn01-3-19.htm">赤爪龍芽</a> <i>chi4 zhao3 long2 ya2</i> 'red claw dragon sprout'. (An English translation is in <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/354284">Chinese Science</a></i>, a series of essays in honor of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Needham">Joseph Needham</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=g4E0AAAAIAAJ&q=red-claw+dragon-sprout&dq=red-claw+dragon-sprout&ei=SSHzRsKrJYSc7gLe473SAQ&pgis=1">snippet</a>.) So the basic ideas behind the naming are reddish roots, Persia, and something that sounds like <i>bo1leng2</i> (Classic <i>*pwâləng</i> per <a href="http://gkarin.com/cikoski/">Cikoski</a>), spelled with various characters, 菠 / 波 薐 / 棱, of which the ones with the plant determiner denote spinach exclusively.</p><p>The earliest botanical reference to spinach is in 種樹書 (simp. 种树书) <i>Zhong3shu4 shu1</i>, from the 7th or 8th century, which despite its name 'Book of the Art of Planting trees', covers a variety of grains, vegetables and fruits. This is listed in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Bretschneider">Emil Bretschneider</a>'s <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/10908320"><i>Botanicon Sinicum</i></a> (p. 79; this book hasn't been scanned in anywhere I can find, but fortunately the librarian at the Harvard Botany Library was extremely helpful). Like many of its sort, the work only survives in the form of quotations in later works that added to it. A more extensive treatment is given in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berthold_Laufer">Berthold Laufer</a>'s monograph <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/4198862&referer=brief_results">Sino-Iranica</a></i>, which is in Google Books, with section 36 (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=KgePrCOwqyIC&printsec=titlepage#PPA392,M1">p. 392</a>) covering “The Spinach.” (It seems to me that Laufer is the major source for Grigson's spinach introduction.) I do not have access to the original sources, but a little searching around finds several useful Chinese web pages (<a href="http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/reader_4544c704010007rm.html">like</a> <a href="http://economy.guoxue.com/article.php/5172">these</a> <a href="http://www.f5edu.com/baike/Lemma.asp?LemmaId=248">here</a>), which I imagine were copied from secondary sources. Since I am not sure that even text given as a direct quotation is really the original in simplified characters, rather than a paraphrase, I will include it as found rather than restoring the traditional characters. So, the <i>Zhongshu shu</i> said that 菠薐 <i>bo1leng2</i> came from the country 菠薐國 <i>bo1leng2 guo2</i>.</p><p>The earliest datable reference to spinach (anywhere) is in the 唐會要 <i>Tang2 hui4 yao1</i>, which records for the 21st year of the <a href="http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/貞觀_(唐太宗)">貞觀</a> (simp. 贞观) <i>zhen1 guan1</i> period (647 CE):</p><blockquote>太宗时,尼婆罗献波棱菜,叶类红蓝,实如蒺藜,火熟之能益食味<p><i>tai4zong1 shi2, ni2po2luo2 xian4 bo1leng2 cai4, ye4 lei4 hong2lan2, shi2 ru2 ji2li2, huo3 shu2 zhi1 neng2 yi4 shi2 wei4</i></p><p>In the time of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Taizong_of_Tang">Taizong</a>, Nepal sent the vegetable “spinach,” with a flower like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safflower">safflower</a>, and fruit like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribulus_terrestris"><i>Tribulus terrestris</i></a>; well cooked it is a beneficial and tasty food.</p></blockquote><p>The emperor had requested that all tributary nations present their best vegetables. That Nepal considered it worthy suggests that it was a novelty there too.</p><p>The Tang dynasty 嘉話錄 <i>Jia1 hua4 lu4</i> 'Record of Auspicious Words' by 劉禹錫 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Yuxi">Liu2 Yü3xi2</a> is cited by the 太平廣記 <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tàipíng_guǎngjì">Tai4ping2 Guang3ji4</a></i> as saying (<a href="http://www.millionbook.net/gd/l/lifang/tpgj/414.htm">chapter 411</a>; <a href="http://chineseculture.about.com/library/literature/classic/zzbj/taiping/nstaiping414.htm">simplified</a>):</p><blockquote>蔬菜中的菠薐,本來是有一個西域某國的僧人,從他們那里把它的种子帶來的,就像苜蓿和葡萄是張騫從西域帶种回來一樣。菠薐本來是從頗陵國弄來的,叫它“菠薐”是因誤傳而走音。很多人都不知道這事的原委。<p><i>shu1cai4 zhong1 de0 bo1leng2, ben3lai2 shi4 you3 yi1ge4 xi1yu4 mou3 guo2 de0 seng1ren2, cong2 ta1men0 na4li0 ba3 ta1 de0 zhong3zi0 dai4lai2 de0, jiu4 xiang4 mu4xu0 he2 pu2tao0 shi4 Zhang1Qian1 cong2 xi1yu4 dai4 zhong3 hui2lai0 yi1yang4. bo1leng2 ben3lai2 shi4 cong2 po1ling2guo2 nong4 lai2 de0, jiao4 ta1 “bo1leng2” shi4 yin1 wu4 chuan2 er2 zou3 yin1. hen3duo1 ren2 dou1 bu4zhi1dao4 zhe4 shi4 de0 yuan2wei3.</i></p><p>The Chinese vegetable spinach originally existed in some Western country, whence a monk brought the seed, in much the same way as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Qian">Zhang Qian</a> brought the plants alfalfa and grapes from the Western region. Since spinach originally came from the country Poling, it was called “Spinach [<i>Boleng</i>]” and in this way the mistake spread as the word as passed along. Many people are completely ignorant of the whole story of this matter.</p></blockquote><p>As for the Persian connection, it does not appear until the Ming dynasty, in the 本草綱目 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bencao_Gangmu"><i>Ben3cao3 Gang1mu4</i></a> 'Detailed Outline of <i>Materia Medica</i>', which says:</p><blockquote>方士隱(菠菜)名為波斯草雲。<p><i>fang1 shi4yin3 bo1cai4 ming2wei4 bo1si1 cao3 yun2.</i></p><p>Fang Shiyin says that spinach is named as “the Persian herb.”</p></blockquote><p>Porter Smith and Stuart, in <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/1488702">Chinese Materia Medica : Vegetable Kingdom</a></i>, based on the <i>Bencao Gangmu</i>, (<a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/4001836">reprints</a>; the Dover reprint, which is on sale for 60% off this week, is titled <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/50738251">Chinese Medicinal Herbs</a></i> and is itself a reprint of an edition that does not appear to have acknowledged that it was a reprint of the earlier edition of this work; the two are identical up until the appendix and even that is very similar) all but dismiss this, saying (p. 417):</p><blockquote>As the Chinese have a tendency to attribute everything that comes from the south-west to Persia, we are not surprised to find this called 波斯草 (Po-ssŭ-tsʻao), “Persian vegetable.”</blockquote><p>But, in fact, spinach <i>does</i> come from Persia. Perhaps it was just a lucky guess, further motivated by extending <i>bo1</i>, short for <i>bo1 leng2</i>, to <i>bo1 si1</i>. Still, there does not seem to be any fundamental reason to reject the possibility that during the Yuan or Ming, the Chinese learned of its origins through new Silk Road sources and added that name to their botanical literature.</p><p>But what of 菠薐 <i>bo1leng2</i>? It cannot really be 波稜 'waves and edges' because of the shape of the leaves; the earliest sources say it was borrowed. Laufer points out an obvious similarity that I have not seen noted elsewhere, perhaps because everyone who knows enough rejected the theory long ago. Anyone who has eaten in an Indian restaurant knows that 'spinach' is <i>pālak</i>, Hindi पालक or Punjabi ਪਾਲਕ. There was no Sanskrit word for spinach, so an existing word was used पालङ्कः <i>pālaṅka</i> / पालङ्क्य <i>pālaṅkya</i> / पालक्या <i>pālakyā</i>, meaning the greens variously known as Indian Spinach, Spinach beet, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_beet">Sea beet</a>. Likewise, in Nepalese, 'spinach' is पालुङ्गो <i>pāluṅgō</i>. Laufer goes on to observe that there is a country known from inscriptions named पालक्क <i>pālakka</i>. So, the monks from Nepal who brought the emperor's spinach also brought its name 菠薐 <i>bo1leng2</i> and their own folk etymology for its origin in 菠薐國 <i>bo1leng2 guo2</i>. And this got shorted to today's 菠菜 <i>bo1cai4</i>.</p><p>Spinach's Chinese nature is not all that different from the “cold and moist” in the West. The Tang <a href="http://baike.baidu.com/view/1080230.htm">食疗本草</a> <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/15414843">Shi2liao2 Ben3cao3</a></i> by 孟诜 <i>Shen1 Meng4</i> says (similar text on p. 155 of this <a href="http://epasser.aydc.com.cn/ebook/bdp/content2805.html">book</a>):</p><blockquote>北人食肉、面,食之即平;南人食鱼鳖、水米,食之即冷。故多食冷大小肠也。<p><i>bei3 ren2 shi2 rou4, mian4, shi2 zhi1 ji2 ping2; nan2 ren2 shi2 yu2 bie1, shui3 mi3, shi2 zhi1 ji2 leng3. gu4 duo1 shi2 leng3 da4 xiao3 xiao3 chang2.</i></p><p>The Northerner eats meat and noodles, his food is calm; the Southerner eats fish and turtles and wet rice, his food is cold. A lot of cold food affects the size of the intestines.</p></blockquote><p>Which I believe is meant to explain why spinach is more popular in the North.</p><p>Latham's <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/405426">Revised Medieval Latin Word-List from British and Irish Sources</a></i> gives dates a hundred years before Du Cange: 1250 for <i>spinarchia</i> and 1270 for <i>spinachium</i> (<i>-a</i> also 13th century, but apparently not found until 1622). But being a single volume, it cannot afford actual citations. Niermeyer's similar <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/50511135"><i>Mediae Latinitatis lexicon minus</i></a> does not have spinach at all. The larger, multi-volume works, <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/4005657">Mittellateinisches Wörterbuch</a></i> and <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/1473605">Thesaurus Linguae Latinae</a></i>, do not go up to the <i>sp</i>'s (yet).</p><p>The earliest citation for <i><a href="http://www.cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/épinard">épinard</a></i> in the TLFI is from 1256 (as <i>espinaces</i>). The work is Aldebrandin de Sienne's <i><a href="http://www.arlima.net/ad/aldebrandin_de_sienne.html#regime">Régime du corps</a></i>; I couldn't track down the <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/4015946">reprint</a> to see what it says.</p><p>The earliest quotation in the OED is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Palsgrave">John Palsgrave</a>'s 1530 <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/54176689"><i>Lesclarcissement de la langue francoyse</i></a>, which lists (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:4473:138">fol. 66</a>) “spynnage an herbe” as “espinars ma.” The earliest as an herb / vegetable is in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Turner">William Turner</a>'s 1538 <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/79753320">Libellus de re herbaria nouus</a></i>, which is in Latin, but <a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:5223:10">says</a>:</p><blockquote>Seutlomalchon a quibuſda[m] ſpinachia, a n[ost]ris Spynache no[m]i[n]atur<p><i>seutlomalchon</i>: called <i>spinachia</i> by some, spinach by us</p></blockquote><p>The same author's <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/55181889">New Herball</a> (1568) has an entry (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:18352:341">III p. 71</a>) “Of Spinage,” which notably says:</p><blockquote>Spinage or ſpinech is an herbe lately found & not long in uſe but it is wel knowen amongeſt al men in al countrees that it nedeth no deſcription it is well knowen from other herbes by the indented or cut leaues pricky ſede and wateriſh taſte I knowe not wherefore it is good ſauinge to fill the belly & louſe it a little.</blockquote><p>But that is forgetting uses in <a href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=byte&byte=190700413&egdisplay=open&egs=190704458">Middle English</a>, some of which are from the turn of the 15th century. Of the quotations in the MED, perhaps the most interesting is from the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forme_of_Cury">Forme of Cury</a></i>, a medieval cookbook. It has a recipe for Spynoch yfryed (<a href="http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/foc/FoC122small.html">p. 81</a> of Pegge's 1780 <a href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/13794092">edition</a>): <a href="http://www.godecookery.com/mtrans/mtrans11.htm">here</a> is a modern interpretation. In addition to those in the MED, it is also in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Caxton">William Caxton</a>'s <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/52755153">Vocabulary in French and English</a></i> (1480; this phrase-book is known by a number of different names; there is also dispute as to who really wrote it — <a href="http://res.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/56/227/712?ck=nck&eaf">here</a> is a recent article on the subject). In the list of plants (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:10129:7">EEBO</a>; <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=vBxjUFSILb0C&pg=PA13&vq=spynache">reprint</a>), <i>espinces</i> is translated by <i>spynache</i>. This book is a (not very good) translation of a French / Flemish phrase-book from Bruges, called <i>Le Livre des Mestiers</i>, where (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=98oFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PT13">reprint</a>) Espinage was translated by Sinage.</p><p>Spinach shows up in medieval manuscripts, such as the illustrated <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacuinum_sanitatis"><i>Tacuinum Sanitatis</i></a>: <a href="http://www.nd.edu/~medvllib/daylife/tac1984/7v.html">here</a> is one with Latin text and <a href="http://www.godecookery.com/tacuin/tacuin40.htm">here</a> is an original illustration to which a modern English translation of its (similar) text has been added; as expected, it is cold and moist in the first degree. However, in <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/8329220&referer=brief_results">Mediaeval Gardens</a></i> (copies of which command high prices on ABE, which is probably why the BPL has lost theirs), Harvey points out (p. 166) that <i>spinach</i> cannot be relied upon to refer to actual spinach in medieval inventories, even when illustrated. Some of the illustrations look like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linaria">Toadflax</a> and some of the synonym names refer to Wild Colewort or other varieties of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassica_oleracea">Brassica oleracea</a></i>. Likewise, the MED supposes a <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cichorium">Cichorium</a></i> for two of its quotations, where it is described as like a dandelion and as having a blue flower.</p><p>Before leaving spinach (there may be enough leftovers for another post), it is worth mentioning the slang sense of <i>spinach</i> as 'nonsense' in America in the first half of the 20th century and similarly in England in the middle of the 19th. The standard quotation for the earlier occurrence is Dickens; for instance, David Copperfield (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Vvc0AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA107&dq=gammon+spinnage">p. 107</a>):</p><blockquote>“What a world of gammon and spinnage it is, though, ain't it!”</blockquote><p>For the later, it is Alexander Woollcott's <i><a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/193269">While Rome Burns</a></i> (<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=1vIjAAAAMAAJ&q="it's+spinach"&pgis=1">snippet</a>):</p><blockquote>This eruption of reticence, whether dictated by the aforesaid chronicler's own instincts, or enforced upon him by the families affected, will, I am sure, be described by certain temperaments as an exercise in good taste. I do not myself so regard it. I say it's spinach.</blockquote><p>The OED2 lists these two close senses as letters below the same number. <a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/14117">Partridge</a> only lists the single sense, citing OED1, perhaps simply missing its American [re-]emergence. <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=5GpLcC4a5fAC&pg=PA1342&vq=spinach&sig=UFXiTGTResA8Gr3Oh5CTM3aFIUY">Cassell's Dictionary of Slang</a></i> gives the American sense for <i>spinach</i> by itself, with the British one defined under <i>gammon</i>. Which prompts me to ask, what ever became of the <i><a href="http://www.oup.com/us/collections/slang/?view=usa">Historical Dictionary of American Slang</a></i>? The <a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=spinach&searchmode=term">Online Etymology Dictionary</a> says explicitly that the American sense originated with the New Yorker cartoon that is the OED's first quotation for that sense, but it may just be over-abbreviating the OED. Fortunately, in a blog it is easy to link to the <a href="http://www.cartoonbank.com/item/38868">cartoon</a> itself (you need to click on the artist and back on the title to get the picture since the referring site is outside). “Gammon and spinach,” which can be associated with one another simply as foods, is part of the refrain of the nursery rhyme, “<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=yX7wsFW1uQoC&pg=PA155&dq=gammon+spinach">A frog he would a-wooing go</a>.”</p><blockquote>With a rowley, powley, gammon and spinach,<br>Heigh ho! says Anthony Rowley.</blockquote><p><i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/105659">The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes</a></i> (p. 179) says that the “rowley-powley” part does not appear before the 19th century. It then references a <i>Notes and Queries</i> correspondent (No. 35, Sat. June 29, 1850, <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=a4YgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA74&vq=frog|rowley|spinach">p. 74</a>) who remembered seeing somewhere, “that<i> rowley powley</i> is a name for<i> </i>a plump fowl, of which both ‘gammon and spinach’ are posthumous connexions.” The fowl sense is not given by the OED s.v. <i>roly-poly</i>, but is consistent with the 'plump' meaning. The entire <i>Notes and Queries</i> (“A medium of inter-communication for literary men, artists, antiquaries, genealogists, etc.”) discussion, in that volume and the <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=rLMgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA458&vq=frog|rowley|spinach">prior</a> one, is entertaining: it reads like a Victorian group blog of the MetaFilter sort. “Gammon and spinach” is used by Dickens a number of other <a href="http://books.google.com/books?lr=&q=gammon+spinach|spinage|spinnage+inauthor:dickens&as_brr=1">times</a>. It is the name of a chapter in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HBgPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR27&vq=gammon+spinach"><i>Sylvie and Bruno</i></a>, where by being used somewhat literally it turns the allusion back on itself. Likewise, in the Lestrygonians episode of <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=mBNjq2PSbgAC&pg=PA292&vq=gammon+spinach&sig=hJjMF5dobLmJQzygpY85cNvjWzE"><i>Ulysses</i></a> it both signifies something about Irish politics and reminds that Bloom is getting hungry.</p><p>Both the <a href="http://crl.nmsu.edu/Resources/dictionaries/search2.php?word=زرشک&type=word&lang=Persian&id=5&alphaP=5">dictionary</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barberry#Zereshk">Wikipedia</a> point out that in Persian slang, زرشک <i>zerešk</i> 'barberry' (a few of which give kookoo its tartness), means 'bullshit', in the sense of doubting the truth of what has just been said.</p><p>I have not found any suggestion for an etymology of کوکو <i>kūkū</i>. It also means 'dove; sound of a dove', which is presumably onomatopoetic, cf. English <i>cuckoo</i> and <i>coo</i>. In fact, in the earliest Persian to some European language dictionary I can find on the net, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Castell">Edmund Castell</a>'s <a href="http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/55723304"><i>Lexicon heptaglotton Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syriacum, Samaritanum, Æthiopicum, Arabicum, conjunctim; et Persicum, separatim</i></a> (1669), the only sense listed (<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:61077:97">col. 482</a>) is <i>palumbes</i> 'ring dove'. This dictionary is only in EEBO because it was produced in England. There is no sign of <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Rau">Christian Raue</a>'s 1645 <i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=wxECAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA114&dq=Specimen+Lexici+Arabico-Persici-Latini,">Specimen Lexici Arabico-Persici-Latini</a></i>: not even in OCLC. Or Franciszek Meniński's 1680 <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/6393952">Thesaurus linguarum orientalium turcicæ, arabicæ, persicæ</a></i>. Based on a <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=GOELAAAAIAAJ&q=coucou&ei=fjfaRsuHK4P06wLZ_pjvBQ&pgis=1">snippet</a> of a translation, there was a mention in Ange de Saint-Joseph's 1684 <i><a href="http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/3693521">Gazophylacium linguae Persarum</a></i>. An 1852 <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/6211806">revision</a> by Francis Johnson of John Richardson's 1777 <i><a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/18297224">A Dictionary, Persian, Arabic, and English</a></i> is on <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/dictionarypersia00johnuoft">archive.org</a>. It gives (p. 1030), “کوکو kūkū, A fried egg, fritter. The cooing of a dove.” Note that an otherwise very helpful <a href="https://www.iranica.com/articles/v7/v7f4/v7f438.html">survey</a> of Persian dictionaries makes a mistake with Meniński, putting him a century too late in 1780 instead of 1680 (perhaps because of a mistake in AH calendar arithmetic or perhaps because of a later <a href="http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/41640902">edition</a>), and so missing that he was Richardson's major source.</p><p>Another Boston-area Persian restaurant, <a href="http://lalarokh.com/about.htm">Lala Rokh</a>, usually has a kookoo appetizer; I have never seen it at the other three local Persian restaurants that we go to. Lala Rokh is <a href="http://lalarokh.com/Legend_frame.htm">named</a> after the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Moore">Thomas Moore</a> poem, <a href="http://worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/3362700">Lalla Rookh</a> (which is in <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=HNEjAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage">Google Books</a>, as is the historical <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=gI8BAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA392,M1">description</a> of the visit by the king of Bucharia (Eastern Turkestan) to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a> that Moore says was the rough basis for the frame tale). لالہ رخ <i>lāla rax</i> means 'tulip cheeks'. <a href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:167.steingass">رخ</a> <i>rax</i> (several Persian homonyms) also gives the English words <i>rook</i> (the chess piece) and <i>roc</i> (the mythical bird). لاله is usually pronounced <i>lāleh</i> in Modern Persian, both as the flower and a girl's name.</p><p>The Arabic equivalent of kookoo is عجة <i>ʿuǧǧah</i>, often transliterated as <i>eggah</i>. By way of comparison, Richardson & Johnson's definition is (p. 840), “عجّة ‪ع‬ujjat, An egg-fritter, omelet; to which they add sometimes a little meat, onions, and pepper.” It is from the same root (e.g., Lane <a href="http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000240.pdf">p. 1955</a>) as عج <i>ʿaǧǧa</i> 'to cry', though I am not completely clear why. As expected, search (and image search) turns up various recipes, including <a href="http://www.hawahome.com/cook/modules.php?name=Recipes&op=viewrecipe&recipeid=1196">some</a> for عجة الأعشاب <i>ʿuǧǧa al-aʿšābi</i><br> 'herb frittata'. An English translation of the medieval cookbook كتاب وصف الاطعمة المعتادة <i>Kitāb Waṣf al-Aṭʿima al-Muʿtāda</i>, which is an expansion of the كتاب الطبيخ <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Hasan_al-Baghdadi">Kitāb al-Ṭabīḫ</a></i>, is included in <i><a href="http://www.librarything.com/work/988056">Medieval Arab Cookery</a></i>. The introduction to the section on مبعثرات <i>mubaʿṯarāt</i> 'scrambled [eggs]' and عج <i>ʿuǧaǧ</i> 'frittatas' lists among their kinds عجة حامضة <i>ʿuǧǧa ḥāmiḍa</i> 'sour frittatas' and عجة حلوة <i>ʿuǧǧa ḥulwa</i> 'sweet frittatas', but alas no recipes for <i>ʿuǧǧa</i> are actually in the text. This book is published by the same people as <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petits_Propos_Culinaires">Petits Propos Culinaires</a></i> (which I wish some local library had the complete series of). They have also just published <i><a href="http://dialspace.dial.pipex.com/town/lane/kal69/shop/pages/isbn545.htm">Eggs in Cookery</a></i>; I will probably wait for the library to get that, since I am more concerned with the vegetables than the egg binder.</p></div>MMcMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18050858208942064042noreply@blogger.com4